Conjugal transfer of plasmid pNB2 to activated sludge bacteria leads to 3-chloroaniline degradation in enrichment cultures

AIMS: The involvement of the aniline-degradative plasmid pNB2 in degradation of 3-chloroaniline (3-CA) was investigated. METHODS AND RESULTS: Plate matings of a Pseudomonas putida strain containing pNB2 with a mixed bacterial culture derived from activated sludge was carried out. After inoculation of the mating mixtures into batch cultures containing 3-CA, degradation of the compound was observed. A total of five different transconjugant strains could be isolated from one of the batch cultures and two of them were able to degrade 3-CA. These two isolates were identified as Comamonas testosteroni by partial 16S rDNA sequencing. CONCLUSIONS: It can be assumed that pNB2 carries a part of the genes involved in the catabolism of 3-CA, but that completion of the pathway must be provided by chromosomal genes in the host strain. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: pNB2 is a candidate plasmid which can be used in plasmid-mediated bioaugmentation of wastewater bacteria involved in degradation of chlorinated anilines.     

Conjugal properties of the Sinorhizobium meliloti plasmid mobilome

The biology and biochemistry of plasmid transfer in soil bacteria is currently under active investigation because of its central role in prokaryote adaptation and evolution. In this work, we examined the conjugal properties of the cryptic plasmids present in a collection of the N₂-fixing legume-symbiont Sinorhizobium meliloti . The study was performed on 65 S. meliloti isolates recovered from 25 humic soils of Argentina, which were grouped into 22 plasmid-profile types [i.e. plasmid operational taxonomic units (OTUs)]. The cumulative Shannon index calculated for the observed plasmid profiles showed a clear saturation plateau, thus indicating an adequate representation of the S. meliloti plasmid-profile types in the isolates studied. The results show that isolates of nearly 14% of the plasmid OTUs hosted transmissible plasmids and that isolates of 29% of the plasmid OTUs were able to retransfer the previously characterized mobilizable-cryptic plasmid pSmeLPU88b to a third recipient strain. It is noteworthy that isolates belonging to 14% of the plasmid OTUs proved to be refractory to the entrance of the model plasmid pSmeLPU88b, suggesting either the presence of surface exclusion phenomena or the occurrence of restriction incompatibility with the incoming replicon. Incompatibility for replication between resident plasmids and plasmid pSmeLPU88b was observed in c . 20% of the OTUs. The results reported here reveal a widespread compatibility among the conjugal functions of the cryptic plasmids in S. meliloti , and this fact, together with the observed high proportion of existing donor genotypes, points to the extrachromosomal compartment of the species as being an extremely active plasmid mobilome.     

Horizontal transfer of nonconjugative plasmids in a colony biofilm of Escherichia coli

We tested the possibility of nonconjugative lateral DNA transfer in a colony biofilm of mixed Escherichia coli strains. By simply coculturing a plasmid-free F(-) strain and another F(-) strain harboring a nonconjugative plasmid in a colony biofilm on antibiotic-free agar media, transformed cells were produced within 24-48 h at the frequency of 10(-10)-10(-9) per recipient cell. PCR analysis of the transformed cells demonstrated the occurrence of lateral plasmid transfer. These cells survived until at least day 7 under antibiotic-free conditions. Liquid cultures of the same strains in Luria-Bertani broth produced no or few transformants, suggesting the importance of colony-biofilm formation for plasmid transfer. This is a novel line of evidence indicating that nonconjugative, nonviral horizontal gene transfer can occur between E. coli cells.     

Enhanced high copy number plasmid maintenance and heterologous protein production in an Escherichia coli biofilm

Escherichia coli has been widely used for heterologous protein production (HPP). To determine whether a biofilm environment could benefit E. coli HPP using high copy number plasmids, we compared plasmid maintenance and HPP by E. coli ATCC 33456 containing plasmid pEGFP (a pUC family vector) cultivated in biofilms and in suspended culture. Cells were grown with or without antibiotic selective pressure in flow cells or chemostats for up to 6 days. In biofilms, antibiotic selective pressure increased the plasmid copy number (PCN), but by 144 h, biofilms grown in antibiotic-free media had comparable plasmid concentrations. In the chemostat, the PCN declined steadily, although 100 ppm ampicillin in the medium slowed the rate of plasmid loss. Production of green fluorescent protein (GFP), a representative heterologous protein, was quantified by flow cytometry. In biofilms, at ampicillin concentrations >or=33 ppm, strongly fluorescent cells comprised more than half of the population by 48 h. In the chemostat, more than 50% of the population was non-fluorescent by 48 h in media containing 100 ppm ampicillin, and strongly fluorescent cells were <10% of the population. Biofilm structure was determined by confocal microscopy. Maximum biofilm thickness ranged from 30 to 45 microns, with no significant changes in biofilm structure after 48 h. Plasmid multimer percentages were similar to inocula for cells cultivated in either biofilms or the chemostat. The results indicate that the biofilm environment enhanced both plasmid maintenance and cellular GFP concentrations, and that low levels of antibiotic increased the beneficial effect.     

Variation and modeling of the probability of plasmid loss as a function of growth rate of plasmid-bearing cells of Escherichia coli during continuous cultures

A large number of models concerning cultures of genetically engineered bacteria have been described. Among them, some are specifically adapted to continuous cultures and lead to the determination of two variables: (i) the difference in the specific growth rates between plasmid-carrying cell and plasmid-free cells (deltamu) and (ii) the frequency of plasmid loss by plasmid-containing cells (p(r)mu(+)). Until now, studies have been performed on the global expression p(r)mu(+) and deltamu, whose value during continuous assays have been supposed approximately constant (mean value) and not on separate values of both terms p(r) and mu(+), respectively, probability of plasmid loss and specific growth rate of the plasmid-carrying cells. So far these studies do not allow examination of the relationship between these two last parameters. Experimental results were obtained with Escherichia coli C600 galk (GAPDH), a genetically engineered strain that synthetizes an elevated quantity of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). From data obtained during continuous cultures, it is shown that during an assay, deltamu, and p(r)mu(+) do not remain constant. An appropriate mathematical analysis of the expression of mu(-) (specific growth rate of the plasmid-free cells) and mu(+) has been built up. This allows the evaluation of the values of mu(+) and mu(-) during the continuous cultures carried out at different dilution rates. Values of p(r) have been calculated from these data. Indeed our results show that p(r) increases with mu(+). A modeling approach which allows correct simulation of this variation is also proposed. This model is derived from the Hill equation regarding cooperative binding of enzymic type reaction. (c) 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

接合转移质粒pUCP24T的构建与性能研究

目的 构建能在大肠埃希菌(E.coli)和铜绿假单胞菌(PA)间高效接合转移的质粒.方法 通过NCBI blastn程序分析质粒pCVD442接合反应起始序列oriT,PCR扩增oriT后插入pMD18-T,再将pMD1 8-oriT转化E.coli DH5α,经酶切、测序验证后用SmaI和HindIIII双酶切亚克隆至质粒pUCP24,获得质粒pUCP24T,将pUCP24T转化E.coli后研究pUCP24T从E.coli到PA的接合效率和质粒稳定性等.结果 成功构建pUCP24T重组质粒,在E.coli和PA的接合实验中,E.coli(pUCP24T)-PA共培养2h的接合效率平均为3.588×10-2,按12 h一代连续9代继代培养108 h,抗生素压力下质粒保存率为98.29％,无抗生素的培养基中质粒保存率为21.76％.结论 成功构建高接合效率的接合转移质粒pUCP24T.     

Root growth and exudate production define the frequency of horizontal plasmid transfer in the Rhizosphere

To identify the main drivers of plasmid transfer in the rhizosphere, conjugal transfer was studied in the rhizospheres of pea and barley. The donor Pseudomonas putida KT2442, containing plasmid pKJK5::gfp, was coated onto the seeds, while the recipient P. putida LM24, having a chromosomal insertion of dsRed, was inoculated into the growth medium. Mean transconjugant-to-donor ratios in vermiculite were 4.0+/-0.8 x 10(-2) in the pea and 5.9+/-1.4 x 10(-3) in the barley rhizospheres. In soil, transfer ratios were about 10 times lower. As a result of a 2-times higher root exudation rate in pea, donor densities in pea (1 x 10(6)-2 x 10(9) CFU g(-1) root) were about 10 times higher than in barley. No difference in recipient densities was observed. In situ visualization of single cells on the rhizoplane and macroscopic visualization of the colonization pattern showed that donors and transconjugants were ubiquitously distributed in the pea rhizosphere, while they were only located on the upper parts of the barley roots. Because the barley root elongated about 10 times faster than the pea root, donors were probably outgrown by the elongating barley root. Thus by affecting the cell density and distribution, exudation and root growth appear to be key parameters controlling plasmid transfer in the rhizosphere.     

Chlorine dioxide disinfection of single and dual species biofilms,detached biofilm and planktonic cells

Disinfection efficacy testing is usually done with planktonic cells or more recently, biofilms. While disinfectants are much less effective against biofilms compared to planktonic cells, questions regarding the disinfection tolerance of detached biofilm clusters remain largely unanswered. Burkholderia cepacia and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were grown in chemostats and biofilm tubing reactors, with the tubing reactor serving as a source of detached biofilm clusters. Chlorine dioxide susceptibility was assessed for B. cepacia and P. aeruginosa in these three sample types as monocultures and binary cultures. Similar doses of chlorine dioxide inactivated samples of chemostat and tubing reactor effluent and no statistically significant difference between the log₁₀ reductions was found. This contrasts with chlorine, shown previously to be generally less effective against detached biofilm particles. Biofilms were more tolerant and required chlorine dioxide doses ten times higher than chemostat and tubing reactor effluent samples. A second species was advantageous in all sample types and resulted in lower log₁₀ reductions when compared to the single species cultures, suggesting a beneficial interaction of the species.     

Diclofenac exhibits synergism with azoles against planktonic cells and biofilms of Candida tropicalis

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of diclofenac on minimum inhibitory concentrations of antifungals against planktonic cells and biofilms of Candida tropicalis. Susceptibility testing of planktonic cells was evaluated using the broth microdilution assay and checkerboard method. Biofilm formation by C. tropicalis in the presence of diclofenac, alone or in combination with antifungals, was also evaluated, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) and confocal microscope (CLSM) analyses were performed. Diclofenac showed an MIC of 1024?μg?ml^?1 against planktonic cells. The MICs of fluconazole and voriconazole against azole-resistant isolates were reduced 8- to 32-fold and 16- to 256-fold, respectively, when in combination with diclofenac. When in combination with fluconazole or voriconazole, diclofenac reduced the antifungal concentration necessary to inhibit C. tropicalis biofilm formation. In conclusion, diclofenac presents synergism with fluconazole and voriconazole against resistant C. tropicalis strains and improves the activity of these azole drugs against biofilm formation.     

A soil-based microbial biofilm exposed to 2,4-D: bacterial community development and establishment of conjugative plasmid pJP4

A soil suspension was used as a source to initiate the development of microbial communities in flow cells irrigated with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) (25 microg ml(-1)). Culturable bacterial members of the community were identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and found to be members of the genera Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Collimonas and Rhodococcus. A 2,4-D degrading donor strain, Pseudomonas putida SM1443 (pJP4::gfp), was inoculated into flow cell chambers containing 2-day old biofilm communities. Transfer of pJP4::gfp from the donor to the bacterial community was detectable as GFP fluorescing cells and images were captured using confocal scanning laser microscopy (GFP fluorescence was repressed in the donor due to the presence of a chromosomally located lacI(q) repressor gene). Approximately 5-10 transconjugant microcolonies, 20-40 microm in diameter, could be seen to develop in each chamber. A 2,4-D degrading transconjugant strain was isolated from the flow cell system belonging to the genus Burkholderia.     

Comparative susceptibility of planktonic and 3‐day‐old Salmonella Typhimurium biofilms to disinfectants

Aims: To compare the susceptibility of a 3‐day‐old biofilm and planktonic Salmonella to disinfectants at different exposure times. We hypothesize that Salmonella biofilms are more resilient to disinfectants compared to planktonic Salmonella. Methods and Results: The susceptibility of planktonic cells to disinfectants was tested by a modified version of the Council of Europe suspension test EN 1276. Salmonella biofilms were formed using the Calgary Biofilm Device. Results show that 3‐day‐old Salmonella biofilms are less susceptible to the disinfectants benzalkonium chloride, chlorhexidine gluconate, citric acid, quaternary ammonium compounds, sodium hypochlorite (SH) and ethanol, compared to planktonic Salmonella. Surprisingly, the results also demonstrate that low concentrations of SH were more effective against a 3‐day‐old biofilm compared to high concentrations of SH. Conclusions: While all the disinfectants evaluated were able to reduce biofilm‐associated cells at concentrations and contact times sufficient to eliminate planktonic cells, there were still sufficient viable cells remaining in the biofilm to cause further contamination and potential infection. Significance and Impact of the Study: Protocols for the use of chemical disinfectants need to include biofilm susceptibility testing. There is a requirement for an effective and standardized tool for determining the susceptibility of biofilms to disinfectants.     

Measurement of local mass transfer coefficient in biofilms

Local mass transfer rates for an electrochemically formed microsink in an aerobic biofilm was measured by a mobile microelectrode using limiting current technique. Mass transfer coefficients varied both horizontally and vertically in the biofilm. The results implied the existence of an irregular biofilm structure consisting of microbial cell clusters surrounded by tortuous water channels. An unexpected increase of the local mass transfer coefficient just above the biofilm surface suggested the existence, of local flow instability in this region. As expected, the influence of bulk flow velocity on the local mass transfer rate decreased with increasing depth into the biofilm. Mass transfer coefficients fluctuated significantly inside microbial cell clusters, suggesting the existence of internal channels through which liquid could flow. A new conceptual model of biofilm microbial cluster structure is proposed to account for such biofilm microstructure irregularities. (c) 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

A global view of antibiotic resistance

Antibiotic resistance is one of the few examples of evolution that can be addressed experimentally. The present review analyses this resistance, focusing on the networks that regulate its acquisition and its effect on bacterial physiology. It is widely accepted that antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes play fundamental ecological roles – as weapons and shields, respectively – in shaping the structures of microbial communities. Although this Darwinian view of the role of antibiotics is still valid, recent work indicates that antibiotics and resistance mechanisms may play other ecological roles and strongly influence bacterial physiology. The expression of antibiotic resistance determinants must therefore be tightly regulated and their activity forms part of global metabolic networks. In addition, certain bacterial modes of life can trigger transient phenotypic antibiotic resistance under some circumstances. Understanding resistance thus requires the analysis of the regulatory networks controlling bacterial evolvability, the physiological webs affected and the metabolic rewiring it incurs.     

Effect of carbon source addition on toluene biodegradation by an Escherichia coli DH5α transconjugant harboring the TOL plasmid

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of plasmids is a naturally occurring phenomenon which could be manipulated for bioremediation applications. Specifically, HGT may prove useful to enhance bioremediation through genetic bioaugmentation. However, because the transfer of a plasmid between donor and recipient cells does not always result in useful functional phenotypes, the conditions under which HGT events result in enhanced degradative capabilities must first be elucidated. The objective of this study was to determine if the addition of alternate carbon substrates could improve toluene degradation in Escherichia coli DH5α transconjugants. The addition of glucose (0.5–5 g/L) and Luria–Bertani (LB) broth (10–100%) resulted in enhanced toluene degradation. On average, the toluene degradation rate increased 14.1 (±2.1)‐fold in the presence of glucose while the maximum increase was 18.4 (±1.7)‐fold in the presence of 25% LB broth. Gene expression of xyl genes was upregulated in the presence of glucose but not LB broth, which implies different inducing mechanisms by the two types of alternate carbon source. The increased toluene degradation by the addition of glucose or LB broth was persistent over the short‐term, suggesting the pulse amendment of an alternative carbon source may be helpful in bioremediation. While the effects of recipient genome GC content and other conditions must still be examined, our results suggest that changes in environmental conditions such as alternate substrate availability may significantly improve the functionality of the transferred phenotypes in HGT and therefore may be an important parameter for genetic bioaugmentation optimization. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2010;107: 269–277. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Evaluation of the hok/sok killer locus for enhanced plasmid stability

The effectiveness of the hok/sok plasmid stability locus and mechanism of cloned-gene loss was evaluated in shake-flask cultures. Addition of the hok/sok locus dramitically increasedapparent plasmid segregational stability to the hok/sok(-) control. In terms of the number of generations before 10%of the population became plasmid-free, segregational stability was increased by 11- to 20-fold in different media in the absence of induction of the cloned-gene (hok/sok(+) plasmid stable for over 200 generations in all media tested). With constant expression of beta-galactosidase in the absence of an tibiotic, the segregational stability of the plasmid containing hok/sok was incresed more than 17- to 30-fold when beta-galactosidase was expressed at 7-15 wt % of total cell protein. Although the hok/sok system stabilized the plasmid well infour different media (Luria-Bertani (LB), LB glucose, M9C Trp, and a representative fedbatch medium), the ability of hok/sok to maintain the plasmid with induction of the cloned gene decreased as the complexity of the media increased. This result is better interpreted in terms of the influence of cloned-gene expression on plasmidmaintenance; plasmid segregational stability decreased linearly as specificbeta-galactosidase activity increased. (c) 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.