Predictive models for transient protein expression in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) can optimize process time, yield, and downstream costs

The transient expression of recombinant biopharmaceutical proteins in plants can suffer inter‐batch variation, which is considered a major drawback under the strict regulatory demands imposed by current good manufacturing practice (cGMP). However, we have achieved transient expression of the monoclonal antibody 2G12 and the fluorescent marker protein DsRed in tobacco leaves with ～15% intra‐batch coefficients of variation, which is within the range reported for transgenic plants. We developed models for the transient expression of both proteins that predicted quantitative expression levels based on five parameters: The OD_600nm of Agrobacterium tumefaciens (from 0.13 to 2.00), post‐inoculation incubation temperature (15–30°C), plant age (harvest at 40 or 47 days after seeding), leaf age, and position within the leaf. The expression models were combined with a model of plant biomass distribution and extraction, generating a yield model for each target protein that could predict the amount of protein in specific leaf parts, individual leaves, groups of leaves, and whole plants. When the yield model was combined with a cost function for the production process, we were able to perform calculations to optimize process time, yield, or downstream costs. We illustrate this procedure by transferring the cost function from a production process using transgenic plants to a hypothetical process for the transient expression of 2G12. Our models allow the economic evaluation of new plant‐based production processes and provide greater insight into the parameters that affect transient protein expression in plants. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2012; 109: 2575–2588. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The impact of Pseudomonas syringae type III effectors on transient protein expression in tobacco

The production of recombinant proteins in plants is often achieved by transient expression, e.g. following the injection or vacuum infiltration of Agrobacterium tumefaciens into tobacco leaves. We investigated the associated plant defence responses, revealing that callose deposition is triggered by T–DNA transfer and that subsets of secondary metabolites accumulate in response to mechanical wounding or the presence of bacteria. We also tested the ability of five co‐expressed type III effector proteins from Pseudomonas syringae to modulate these defence responses and increase the yield of two model proteins, the fluorescent marker DsRed and monoclonal antibody 2G12. HopF2 and AvrRpt2 induced necrotic lesions 5 days post‐injection (dpi) even at low doses (OD_600 nm = 0.0078), and increased the concentration of certain secondary metabolites. HopAO1 significantly reduced the number of callose deposits at 2 dpi compared to cells expressing DsRed and 2G12 alone, whereas HopI1 reduced the concentration of several secondary metabolites at 5 dpi compared to cells expressing DsRed and 2G12 alone. Co‐expression with HopAO1, AvrPtoB or HopI1 increased the concentrations of DsRed and 2G12 increased by ~6% but this was not a significant change. In contrast, HopF2 and AvrRpt2 significantly reduced the concentrations of DsRed and 2G12 by 34% and 22%, respectively. Our results show that type III effector proteins can modulate plant defence responses and secondary metabolite profiles but that transient co‐expression is not sufficient to increase the yields of target recombinant proteins in tobacco.     

Fine‐tuning levels of heterologous gene expression in plants by orthogonal variation of the untranslated regions of a nonreplicating transient expression system

A transient expression system based on a deleted version of Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) RNA‐2, termed CPMV‐HT, in which the sequence to be expressed is positioned between a modified 5′ UTR and the 3′ UTR has been successfully used for the plant‐based expression of a wide range of proteins, including heteromultimeric complexes. While previous work has demonstrated that alterations to the sequence of the 5′ UTR can dramatically influence expression levels, the role of the 3′ UTR in enhancing expression has not been determined. In this work, we have examined the effect of different mutations in the 3′UTR of CPMV RNA‐2 on expression levels using the reporter protein GFP encoded by the expression vector, pEAQexpress‐HT‐GFP. The results showed that the presence of a 3′ UTR in the CPMV‐HT system is important for achieving maximal expression levels. Removal of the entire 3′ UTR reduced expression to approximately 30% of that obtained in its presence. It was found that the Y‐shaped secondary structure formed by nucleotides 125–165 of the 3′ UTR plays a key role in its function; mutations that disrupt this Y‐shaped structure have an effect equivalent to the deletion of the entire 3′ UTR. Our results suggest that the Y‐shaped secondary structure acts by enhancing mRNA accumulation rather than by having a direct effect on RNA translation. The work described in this paper shows that the 5′ and 3′ UTRs in CPMV‐HT act orthogonally and that mutations introduced into them allow fine modulation of protein expression levels.     

Expression Enhancement of a Rice Polyubiquitin Gene Promoter

An 808 bp promoter from a rice polyubiquitin gene, rubi3, has been isolated. The rubi3 gene contained an open reading frame of 1140 bp encoding a pentameric polyubiquitin arranged as five tandem, head-to-tail repeats of 76 aa. The 1140 bp 5′ UTR intron of the gene enhanced its promoter activity in transient expression assays by 20-fold. Translational fusion of the GUS reporter gene to the coding sequence of the ubiquitin monomer enhanced GUS enzyme activity in transient expression assays by 4.3-fold over the construct containing the original rubi3 promoter (including the 5′ UTR intron) construct. The enhancing effect residing in the ubiquitin monomer coding sequence has been narrowed down to the first 9 nt coding for the first three amino acid residues of the ubiquitin protein. Mutagenesis at the third nucleotide of this 9 nt sequence still maintains the enhancing effect, but leads to translation of the native GUS protein rather than a fusion protein. The resultant 5′ regulatory sequence, consisting of the rubi3 promoter, 5′ UTR exon and intron, and the mutated first 9 nt coding sequence, has an activity nearly 90-fold greater than the rubi3 promoter only (without the 5′ UTR intron), and 2.2-fold greater than the maize Ubi1 gene promoter (including its 5′ UTR intron). The newly created expression vector is expected to enhance transgene expression in monocot plants. Considering the high conservation of the polyubiquitin gene structure in higher plants, the observed enhancement in gene expression may apply to 5′ regulatory sequences of other plant polyubiquitin genes.     

A red fluorescent protein, DsRed2, as a visual reporter for transient expression and stable transformation in soybean

Fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) from Aequorea victoria are often used as markers for transient expression and stable transformation in plants, given that their detection does not require a substrate and they can be monitored in a nondestructive manner. We have now evaluated the red fluorescent protein DsRed2 (a mutant form of DsRed from Discosoma sp.) for its suitability as a visual marker in combination with antibiotic selection for genetic transformation of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill]. Transient and stable expression of DsRed2 in somatic embryos was readily detected by fluorescence microscopy, allowing easy confirmation of gene introduction. We obtained several fertile transgenic lines, including homozygous lines, that grew and produced seeds in an apparently normal manner. The red fluorescence of DsRed2 was detected by fluorescence microscopy without background fluorescence in both leaves and seeds of the transgenic plants. Furthermore, in contrast to seeds expressing GFP, those expressing DsRed2 were readily identifiable even under white light by the color conferred by the transgene product. The protein composition of seeds was not affected by the introduction of DsRed2, with the exception of the accumulation of DsRed2 itself, which was detectable as an additional band on electrophoresis. These results indicate that DsRed2 is a suitable reporter (even more suitable than GFP) for genetic transformation of soybean.     

Functional comparison of catalase genes in the elimination of photorespiratory H2O2 using promoter‐ and 3′‐untranslated region exchange experiments in the Arabidopsis cat2 photorespiratory mutant

Photorespiration‐associated production of H₂O₂ accounts for the majority of total H₂O₂ in leaves of C₃ plants and is mainly eliminated by catalases. In Arabidopsis, lack of CAT2, but not CAT1 or CAT3, results in growth suppression and a marked accumulation of H₂O₂ in leaves. To evaluate the contribution of individual catalase genes and their promoters to catalase function, we investigated the growth suppression and H₂O₂ accumulation phenotypes of Arabidopsis derivatives expressing catalase genes from heterologous CAT promoters in a cat2 mutant background. The expression of CAT2 from the CAT2 promoter restored the wild‐type phenotype in a cat2‐1 mutant, while CAT1 and CAT3 promoter‐driven expression of CAT2 did not. Ectopic expression of CAT3 from the CAT2 promoter also restored the normal phenotype, unlike that of CAT1 which required replacement of the CAT1 3′‐untranslated region (UTR) with that of CAT2. These results demonstrated that the photorespiratory role of CAT2 is determined mainly by the regulation of its promoter activity. The 3′‐UTR of CAT2 was vital for controlling CAT2 protein levels under photorespiratory conditions. Identification of component of heterotetramers catalase isoforms suggested that there is some functional redundancy between CAT2 and CAT1 and CAT3.     

The NIN‐like protein 5 (ZmNLP5) transcription factor is involved in modulating the nitrogen response in maize

Maize exhibits marked growth and yield response to supplemental nitrogen (N). Here, we report the functional characterization of a maize NIN‐like protein ZmNLP5 as a central hub in a molecular network associated with N metabolism. Predominantly expressed and accumulated in roots and vascular tissues, ZmNLP5 was shown to rapidly respond to nitrate treatment. Under limited N supply, compared with that of wild‐type (WT) seedlings, the zmnlp5 mutant seedlings accumulated less nitrate and nitrite in the root tissues and ammonium in the shoot tissues. The zmnlp5 mutant plants accumulated less nitrogen than the WT plants in the ear leaves and seed kernels. Furthermore, the mutants carrying the transgenic ZmNLP5 cDNA fragment significantly increased the nitrate content in the root tissues compared with that of the zmnlp5 mutants. In the zmnlp5 mutant plants, loss of the ZmNLP5 function led to changes in expression for a significant number of genes involved in N signalling and metabolism. We further show that ZmNLP5 directly regulates the expression of nitrite reductase 1.1 (ZmNIR1.1) by binding to the nitrate‐responsive cis‐element at the 5′ UTR of the gene. Interestingly, a natural loss‐of‐function allele of ZmNLP5 in Mo17 conferred less N accumulation in the ear leaves and seed kernels resembling that of the zmnlp5 mutant plants. Our findings show that ZmNLP5 is involved in mediating the plant response to N in maize.     

pGD vectors: versatile tools for the expression of green and red fluorescent protein fusions in agroinfiltrated plant leaves

We have constructed a matched set of binary vectors designated pGD, pGDG and pGDR for the expression and co-localization of native proteins and GFP or DsRed fusions in large numbers of plant cells. The utility of these vectors following agroinfiltration into leaves has been demonstrated with four genes from Sonchus yellow net virus, a plant nucleorhabdovirus, and with a nucleolar marker protein. Of the three SYNV proteins tested, sc4 gave identical localization patterns at the cell wall and nucleus when fused to GFP or DsRed. However, some differences in expression patterns were observed depending on whether DsRed or GFP was the fusion partner. In this regard, the DsRed:P fusion showed a similar pattern of localization to GFP:P, but localized foci appeared in the nucleus and near the periphery of the nucleus. Nevertheless, the viral nucleocapsid protein, expressed as a GFP:N fusion, co-localized with DsRed:P in a subnuclear locale in agreement with our previous observations (Goodin et al., 2001). This locale appears to be distinct from the nucleolus as indicated by co-expression of the N protein, DsRed:P and a nucleolar marker AtFib1 fused to GFP. The SYNV M protein, which is believed to be particularly prone to oligomerization, was detectable only as a GFP fusion. Our results indicate that agroinfiltration with bacteria containing the pGD vectors is extremely useful for transient expression of several proteins in a high proportion of the cells of Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. The GFP and DsRed elements incorporated into the pGD system should greatly increase the ease of visualizing co-localization and interactions of proteins in a variety of experimental dicotyledonous hosts.     

Ready‐to‐Use Stocks of Agrobacterium tumefaciens Can Simplify Process Development for the Production of Recombinant Proteins by Transient Expression in Plants

Large‐scale automated transient protein expression in plants requires the synchronization of cultivation and bacterial fermentation, especially if more than one bacterial strain. Therefore, a ready‐to‐use approach that decouples bacterial fermentation and infiltration is developed. It is found that bacterial cultures can easily be reconstituted in infiltration medium at a user‐defined time, optical density, and quantity. This allows the process flow to be staggered, avoiding bottlenecks in process capacity and labor. Using the red fluorescent protein, DsRed, as a model product, the ready‐to‐use preparations achieved the same yields in infiltrated plant biomass as Agrobacterium tumefaciens derived from regular fermentations. It is possible to store the ready‐to‐use stocks at –20 °C and –80 °C for more than two months without loss of activity. Using a consolidated cost model for the current fermentation process, it is found that the ready‐to‐use strategy can reduce operational costs by 20–95% and investment costs by up to 75%, which would otherwise offset the economic advantages of plants over mammalian expression systems during upstream production. Furthermore, the staggered cultivation of plants and bacteria reduces the likelihood of batch failure and thus increases the robustness and flexibility of transient expression for the production of recombinant proteins in plants.     

Animal component‐free Agrobacterium tumefaciens cultivation media for better GMP‐compliance increases biomass yield and pharmaceutical protein expression in Nicotiana benthamiana

Transient expression systems allow the rapid production of recombinant proteins in plants. Such systems can be scaled up to several hundred kilograms of biomass, making them suitable for the production of pharmaceutical proteins required at short notice, such as emergency vaccines. However, large‐scale transient expression requires the production of recombinant Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains with the capacity for efficient gene transfer to plant cells. The complex media often used for the cultivation of this species typically include animal‐derived ingredients that can contain human pathogens, thus conflicting with the requirements of good manufacturing practice (GMP). We replaced all the animal‐derived components in yeast extract broth (YEB) cultivation medium with soybean peptone, and then used a design‐of‐experiments approach to optimize the medium composition, increasing the biomass yield while maintaining high levels of transient expression in subsequent infiltration experiments. The resulting plant peptone Agrobacterium medium (PAM) achieved a two‐fold increase in OD₆₀₀ compared to YEB medium during a 4‐L batch fermentation lasting 18 h. Furthermore, the yields of the monoclonal antibody 2G12 and the fluorescent protein DsRed were maintained when the cells were cultivated in PAM rather than YEB. We have thus demonstrated a simple, efficient and scalable method for medium optimization that reduces process time and costs. The final optimized medium for the cultivation of A. tumefaciens completely lacks animal‐derived components, thus facilitating the GMP‐compliant large‐scale transient expression of recombinant proteins in plants.     

An allele of ZmPORB2 encoding a protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase promotes tocopherol accumulation in both leaves and kernels of maize

Phytol is one of the key precursors for tocopherol synthesis in plants, however, the underlying mechanisms concerning the accumulation of tocopherol remain poorly understood. In this study, qVE5, a major QTL affecting tocopherol accumulation in maize kernels was identified via a positional cloning approach. qVE5 encodes a protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase (ZmPORB2), which localizes to the chloroplast. Overexpression of ZmPORB2 increased tocopherol content in both leaves and kernels. Candidate gene association analysis identified a 5/8‐bp insertion/deletion (InDel058) in the 5′ untranslated region (UTR) as the causal polymorphism in affecting ZmPORB2 expression and being highly associated with tocopherol content. We showed that higher expression of ZmPORB2 correlated with more chlorophyll metabolites in the leaf following pollination. RNA‐sequencing and metabolic analysis in near isogenic lines (NILs) support that ZmPORB2 participates in chlorophyll metabolism enabling the production of phytol, an important precursor of tocopherol. We also found that the tocopherol content in the kernel is mainly determined by the maternal genotype, a fact that was further confirmed by in vitro culture experiments. Finally, a PCR‐based marker based on Indel058 was developed in order to facilitate the high tocopherol (vitamin E) maize breeding.     

Patterns of green fluorescent protein expression in transgenic plants

Modified forms of genes encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) can be macroscopically detected when expressed in whole plants. This technology has opened up new uses for GFP such as monitoring transgene presence and expression in the environment once it is linked or fused to a gene of interest. When whole-plant or whole-organ GFP visualization is required, GFP should be predictably expressed and reliably fluorescent. In this study the whole plant expression and fluorescence patterns of a mGFP5er gene driven by the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter was studied in intact GFP-expressing transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv. Xanthi). It was shown that GFP synthesis levels in single plant organs were similar to GUS activity levels from published data when driven by the same promoter. Under the control of the 35S promoter, high expression of GFP can be used to visualize stems, young leaves, flowers, and organs where the 35S promoter is most active. Modified forms of GFP could replace GUS as the visual marker gene of choice.     

Development and characterization of a chimaeric tissue-specific promoter in wheat and rice endosperm

The recently achieved significant improvement of cereal transformation protocols provides facilities to alter the protein composition of the endosperm, for example, to increase or decrease the quantity of one of its protein components or to express foreign molecules. To achieve this goal, strong endosperm-specific promoters have to be available. The aim of our work was to develop a more efficient tissue-specific promoter which is currently used. A chimaeric promoter was assembled using the 5′ UTR (1,900 bp) of the gene coding for the 1Bx17 HMW glutenin subunit protein, responsible for tissue-specific expression and the first intron of the rice actin gene (act1). The sequence around of the translation initial codon was optimized. The effect of the intron and promoter regulatory sequences, using different lengths of 1Bx17 HMW-GS promoter, were studied on the expression of uidA gene. The function of promoter elements, promoter length, and the first intron of the rice actin gene were tested by a transient expression assay in immature wheat endosperm and in stable transgenic rice plants. Results showed that insertion of the rice act1 first intron increased GUS expression by four times in transient assay. The shortest 1Bx17 HMW-GS promoter fragment (173 bp) linked to the intron and GUS reporter gene provided almost the same expression level than the intronless long 1Bx17 HMW-GS promoter. Analysis of the stable transformant plants revealed that 173 nucleotides were sufficient for endosperm-specific expression of the uidA gene, despite 13 nucleotides missing from the HMW enhancer sequence, a relevant regulatory element in the promoter region.