Welfare evaluations of nonhuman animals in selected zoos in the Philippines

This study evaluated 3 zoos in the Philippines: the Wildlife Rescue Center and Mini Zoo, Manila Zoological and Botanical Garden, and Cavite Botanical and Zoological Park to determine the standards of nonhuman animal welfare. The study measured and compared the cage sizes of various animals to the international minimum standards. According to the categories of management and husbandry, the 3 zoos showed a significant difference on the mean scores of ranking. The Wildlife Rescue Center and Mini Zoo ranked first, followed by Manila Zoo and Cavite Zoo. Although most cages in the 3 zoos followed acceptable minimum standards, the study identified several problems related to animal welfare, hygiene, husbandry, and management. Based on the evaluations, the study recommended that the 3 zoos improve animal welfare standards.     

The role of zoos and captive breeding in lemur conservation

All the lemurs of Madagascar are declining in the wild, but the species and numbers held in collections outside Madagascar are not sufficient to ensure the continuence of their genetic diversity in captivity. General recommendations as to how to rectify this situation are presented, including a strong plea for coordinated population management among collections holding lemurs.     

Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in zoo animals in selected zoos in the midwestern United States

Toxoplasma gondii infections in zoo animals are of interest because many captive animals die of clinical toxoplasmosis and because of the potential risk of exposure of children and elderly to T. gondii oocysts excreted by cats in the zoos. Seroprevalence of T. gondii antibodies in wild zoo felids, highly susceptible zoo species, and feral cats from 8 zoos of the midwestern United States was determined by using the modified agglutination test (MAT). A titer of 1:25 was considered indicative of T. gondii exposure. Among wild felids, antibodies to T. gondii were found in 6 (27.3%) of 22 cheetahs (Acynonyx jubatus jubatus), 2 of 4 African lynx (Caracal caracal), 1 of 7 clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa), 1 of 5 Pallas cats (Otocolobus manul), 12 (54.5%) of 22 African lions (Panthera leo), 1 of 1 jaguar (Panthera onca), 1 of 1 Amur leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis), 1 of 1 Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor), 5 (27.8%) of 18 Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica), 1 of 4 fishing cats (Prionailurus viverrinus), 3 of 6 pumas (Puma concolor), 2 of 2 Texas pumas (Puma concolor stanleyana), and 5 (35.7%) of 14 snow leopards (Uncia uncia). Antibodies were found in 10 of 34 feral domestic cats (Felis domesticus) trapped in 3 zoos. Toxoplasma gondii oocysts were not found in any of the 78 fecal samples from wild and domestic cats. Among the macropods, antibodies were detected in 1 of 3 Dama wallabies (Macropus eugenii), 1 of 1 western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus), 1 of 2 wallaroos (Macropus robustus), 6 of 8 Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus), 21 (61.8%) of 34 red kangaroos (Macropus rufus), and 1 of 1 dusky pademelon (Thylogale brunii). Among prosimians, antibodies were detected in 1 of 3 blue-eyed black lemurs (Eulemur macaco flavifrons), 1 of 21 ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), 2 of 9 red-ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata rubra), and 2 of 4 black- and white-ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata). Among the avian species tested, 2 of 3 bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) were seropositive. Among 7 possible risk factors, sex, freezing meat temperature (above -13 C vs. below -13 C), washing vegetables thoroughly, frequency of feral cat sightings on zoo grounds (occasionally vs. frequently), frequency of feral cat control programs, capability of feral cats to enter hay/grain barn, and type of animal exhibit, exhibiting animals in open enclosures was the only factor identified as a significant risk (OR 3.22, P = 0.00).     

The role of animals in the epidemiology of the mycoses

The role that animals play in the epidemiology of human mycoses is discussed here. It can be divided as follows:Animals as vectors of mycoses — This role is especially important as far as dermatophytozoonoses are concerned, these being of both the urban type, mainly due to Microsporum canis, and of the rural type, mainly due to Trichophyton verrucosum. These dermatophytozoonoses are emerging problems in present, modern pathology, especially in urban areas. These conditions may also be responsible for important occupational diseases for livestock, rabbit and laboratory attendants. Both domestic animals and wildlife are often asymptomatic carriers.Animal substrates as growths factor for pathogenic fungi — The fact that bird or bat feces may contain factors that favour the growth of some fungous organisms in the environment has long been recognized. It is established fact that soil animalization (i.e., the addition of such debris as hair, skin scales, droppings and other organic matters) create an environmental medium suitable for the growth of geophilic fungi such as Histoplasma capsulatum, Cryptococcus neoformans and M. gypseum.Possible role of animals in the recycling of fungi from foodstuffs and environment — The possible role of animals in determining human pathology has become an emerging problem for which new data are accumulating both on pathogenic fungi and mycotoxins.The use of animals in monitoring mycoses — Animals may reveal the presence of a pathogen in a given area. This phenomenon has been exploited to monitor the natural occurrence of various mycoses (e.g., coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, dermatomycoses) in different regions. The use of sentinel animals (i.e., the introduction of susceptible animals in certain environments to detect the presence of a pathogen) has not been duly exploited.     

The role of companion animals in the emergence of parasitic zoonoses

Pets offer individuals and the community significant benefits, however cognisance must be taken of the potential for transmission of infectious agents from these animals to humans. The prevalence of many parasites, such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium, has increased over the past few decades while others, such as Toxocara and Ancylostoma, have decreased. These changes could be real, associated with the ready availability of efficacious anthelmintic products or could be artificial due to the type of surveys conducted, the animals surveyed and the diagnostic tests used. Immunocompromised people, in particular, must be aware of the potential risk of acquiring parasitic infections from their pets. However, with the adoption of good hygiene and a thorough knowledge of the transmission of these parasites, immunocompromised people should be able to continue to enjoy the significant benefits of pet ownership. As many owners are not aware of the zoonotic parasites that could be carried by their pets or their mode of transmission, it is concluded that veterinarians need to play a greater role in the education of their clients.     

Visitors excite primates in zoos

Fifteen species of primate were observed to assess the effects of zoo visitors on their social behavior. When visitors were present primates were less affiliative, more active, but more aggressive. These changes were particularly marked in arboreal monkeys, especially in smaller species, and were reduced by 50% by lowering the height of spectators. Detailed observations of a group of mandrills indicated that with increasing numbers of visitors the monkeys showed a linear increase in attention to visitors, in activity, and in stereotyped behavior. All of these effects are consistent with an interpretation that visitors are a source of stressful excitement rather than of enrichment.     

Saying it with genes,species and habitats: biodiversity education and the role of zoos

This paper considers the role of zoological gardens as vehicles for teaching about biodiversity and conservation. The general importance of conservation and biodiversity education is outlined in the context of Agenda 21 and the Global Biodiversity Strategy, and the unique niche of zoo education for meeting these challenges is defined. This includes the exhibition of real live animals, accessibility. immediacy, popularity, egalitarianism and the unique combination of strengths and resources offered by zoo education departments. Effective zoo education for biodiversity conservation depends on answering certain criticisms (including behavioural distortion, ecological context and people/animal relationships); working within the available resource framework; and careful strategic planning that considers appropriate messages, target audiences and communication methods. Future zoo education trends might include developing the unique niche; teaching about zoos' role in interactive management; and the contribution of zoo networks to education.     

The role of T-system immunity in reparatory regeneration of the bone tissue in animals

It has been demonstrated in experiments on mice (CBA X C57BL) X F1, thymectomized and irradiated by 800 R, with the haemopoietic system restored by bone marrow (B-mice) that in these animals, as compared with the controls, the changes in cellular immunity (inhibition of natural killer cells and stimulation of individual functions of the phagocytizing cells) are accompanied by considerable inhibition of osteogenesis. Compensatory regeneration of broken thigh-bone in B-mice is delayed by 5--10 days in various elements of the regenerated tissue in comparison with normal mice. Anatomical formation of the provisional callus in B-mice is not completed on day 21 and approaches a 14-day regenerate of the controls. The obtained results suggest the participation of T-system immunity in the reparatory regeneration of bone tissue.     

The methyl-CpG binding domain and the evolving role of DNA methylation in animals

DNA methylation occurs in bacteria, fungi, plants and animals, however its role varies widely among different organisms. Even within animal genomes, methylation patterns vary substantially from undetectable in nematodes, to global methylation in vertebrate genomes. The number and variety of proteins containing methyl-CpG binding domains (MBDs) that are encoded in animal genomes also varies, with a general correlation between the extent of genomic methylation and the number of MBD proteins. We describe here the evolution of the MBD proteins and argue that the vertebrate MBD complement evolved to exploit the benefits and protect against the dangers of a globally methylated genome.     

Domestic animals in the elucidation of zinc's role in nutrition

Parakeratosis in swine, a disease that caused severe economic losses in many commercial herds during the late 1940's and early 1950's, was caused by an inadequate intake of zinc. In addition to poor growth, the disease involves primarily the epidermal layer of the skin, which in severe cases becomes thickened and heavily encrusted. Finally, deep fissures develop in the encrusted areas. The low availability of zinc in plant protein sources and the increasing use of soybean meal in practical-type diets during the late 1940's contributed to the increasing incidence of the disease. Excessive levels of calcium also increased the incidence and severity of the disease. Prominent features of zinc deficiency in poultry were failure of normal development of long bones and the occurrence of severe lesions on the feet and legs. As with the pig, the low bioavailability of zinc from plant protein sources led to the observation that practical-type diets were limiting in this metal. Although parakeratosis can be produced in cattle fed diets low in zinc, it does not seem to have been a major nutritional problem in ruminants.     

The ubiquitous and varied role of infection in the lives of animals and plants

Parasitic and symbiotic infections are major forces governing the life histories of plant and animal hosts-a fact that is ever more evident because of recent findings emanating from diverse subdisciplines of biology. Yet, infectious organisms have been relatively little investigated by biologists who study natural populations. Now that new molecular and computational tools allow us to differentiate and track microscopic infectious agents in nature, we are beginning to establish a better appreciation of their effects on larger, more familiar organisms. This special issue on the ecological and evolutionary consequences of infection for plants and animals is based on the annual Vice Presidential Symposium at the meeting of the American Society of Naturalists held in Knoxville, Tennessee, in the summer of 2001.