Brassinosteroid-6-oxidases from Arabidopsis and tomato catalyze multiple C-6 oxidations in brassinosteroid biosynthesis

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are steroidal plant hormones that are essential for growth and development. It has been proposed that BRs are synthesized via two parallel pathways, the early and late C-6 oxidation pathways according to the C-6 oxidation status. The tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Dwarf gene encodes a cytochrome P450 that has been shown to catalyze the C-6 oxidation of 6-deoxocastasterone to castasterone. We isolated an Arabidopsis ortholog (AtBR6ox gene) of the tomato Dwarf gene. The encoded polypeptide has characteristics of P450s and is classified into the CYP85 family. The AtBR6ox and tomato Dwarf gene were expressed in yeast and the ability of the transformed yeast cells to metabolize 6-deoxo-BRs was tested. Metabolites were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Both enzymes catalyze multiple steps in BR biosynthesis: 6-deoxoteasterone to teasterone, 3-dehydro-6-deoxoteasterone to 3-dehydroteasterone, 6-deoxotyphasterol to typhasterol, and 6-deoxocastasterone to castasterone. Our results indicate that the AtBR6ox gene and the tomato Dwarf gene encode steroid-6-oxidases and that these enzymes have a broad substrate specificity. This suggests that the BR biosynthetic pathway consists of a metabolic grid rather than two separate parallel pathways.     

Tomato cytochrome P450 CYP734A7 functions in brassinosteroid catabolism

Several cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) catalyze essential oxidative reactions in brassinosteroid (BR) biosynthesis as well as in BR catabolism; however, only limited information exists on the P450s involved in the BR catabolic pathway. Here, we report the characterization of two P450 mRNAs, CYP734A7 and CYP734A8, from Lycopersicon esculentum. These P450s show high homology with Arabidopsis CYP734A1/BAS1 (formerly CYP72B1), which inactivates BRs via C-26 hydroxylation. Transgenic tobacco plants that constitutively overexpressed CYP734A7 showed an extreme dwarf phenotype similar to BR deficiency. Quantitative gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of endogenous BRs in the transgenic plants showed that the levels of castasterone and 6-deoxocastasterone significantly decreased in comparison with those in wild-type plants. By measuring the Type I substrate-binding spectra using recombinant CYP734A7, the dissociation constants for castasterone, brassinolide, and 6-deoxocastasterone were determined to be 6.7, 12, and 12 microM, respectively. In an in vitro assay, CYP734A7 was confirmed to metabolize castasterone to 26-hydroxycastasterone. In addition, 28-norcastasterone and brassinolide were converted to the hydroxylated products. The expression of CYP734A7 and CYP734A8 genes in tomato seedlings was upregulated by exogenous application of bioactive BRs. These results indicated that CYP734A7 is a C-26 hydroxylase of BRs and is likely involved in BR catabolism in tomato. The presence of the CYP734A subfamily in various plant species suggests that oxidative inactivation of BRs by these proteins is a widespread phenomenon in plants.     

Recent advances in brassinosteroid molecular genetics

The importance of brassinosteroids (BRs, a specific class of ecdysone-like plant steroids) as essential endogenous regulators of growth and development is demonstrated through a growing number of well characterised Arabidopsis, pea, and tomato mutants deficient in BR biosynthesis or BR response. Thus, a rapid advancement in understanding the molecular genetics of BR biosynthesis and mode of action can be witnessed, which will be further enhanced through the availability of a set of extremely valuable molecular tools for the analysis of the biological function of BRs.     

Loss-of-function of a rice brassinosteroid biosynthetic enzyme,C-6 oxidase,prevents the organized arrangement and polar elongation of cells in the leaves and stem

Molecular genetic and physiological studies on brassinosteroid (BR)-related mutants of dicot plants have revealed that BRs play important roles in normal plant growth and development. However, little is known about the function of BR in monocots (grasses), except for the phenotypic analysis of a rice mutant partially insensitive to BR signaling. To investigate the function of BR in monocots, we identified and characterized BR-deficient mutants of rice, BR-deficient dwarf1 (brd1). The brd1 mutants showed a range of abnormalities in organ development and growth, the most striking of which were defects in the elongation of the stem and leaves. Light microscopic observations revealed that this abnormality was primarily owing to a failure in the organization and polar elongation of the leaf and stem cells. The accumulation profile of BR compounds in the brd1 mutants suggested that these plants may be deficient in the activity of BR C-6 oxidase. Therefore, we cloned a rice gene, OsDWARF, which has a high sequence similarity to the tomato C-6 oxidase gene, DWARF. Introduction of the wild-type OsDWARF gene into brd1 rescued the abnormal phenotype of the mutants. The OsDWARF gene was expressed at a low level in all of the examined tissues, with preferential expression in the leaf sheath, and the expression was negatively regulated by brassinolide treatment. On the basis of these findings, we discuss the biological function of BRs in rice plants.     

Expression of the Fusarium resistance gene I-2 colocalizes with the site of fungal containment

The tomato resistance gene I-2 is one of at least six members of a gene family that are expressed at low levels in the roots, stems and leaves of young tomato plants. Plants transformed with constructs containing a functional I-2 promoter fused to the beta-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene were used in detailed expression studies. Highest GUS activity was found in stems of young tomato plants. Histochemical analysis revealed that the I-2 promoter drives expression of the reporter gene in vascular tissue of fruits, leaves, stems and mature roots. In younger roots, expression was most abundant at the base of lateral root primordia. Microscopical analysis of young tomato plants revealed expression in tissue surrounding the xylem vessels. We show that in resistant plants, fungal growth into this region of the vascular tissue is prevented, suggesting a correlation with the I-2-mediated resistance response.     

Brassinosteroids interact with auxin to promote lateral root development in Arabidopsis

Plant hormone brassinosteroids (BRs) and auxin exert some similar physiological effects likely through their functional interaction, but the mechanism for this interaction is unknown. In this study, we show that BRs are required for lateral root development in Arabidopsis and that BRs act synergistically with auxin to promte lateral root formation. BR perception is required for the transgenic expression of the beta-glucuronidase gene fused to a synthetic auxin-inducible promoter (DR5::GUS) in root tips, while exogenous BR promotes DR5::GUS expression in the root tips and the stele region proximal to the root tip. BR induction of both lateral root formation and DR5::GUS expression is suppressed by the auxin transport inhibitor N-(1-naphthyl) phthalamic acid. Importantly, BRs promote acropetal auxin transport (from the base to the tip) in the root. Our observations indicate that BRs regulate auxin transport, providing a novel mechanism for hormonal interactions in plants and supporting the hypothesis that BRs promote lateral root development by increasing acropetal auxin transport.     

A mammalian steroid action inhibitor spironolactone retards plant growth by inhibition of brassinosteroid action and induces light-induced gene expression in the dark

We screened steroid derivatives and found that spironolactone, an inhibitor of both 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17beta-HSD) and aldosterone receptor, is an inhibitor of phytohormone brassinosteroid (BR) action in plants. Under both dark and light growing conditions, spironolactone induced morphological changes in Arabidopsis, characteristic of brassinosteroid-deficient mutants. Spironolactone-treated plants were also nearly restored to the wild-type phenotype by treatment with additional BRs. In the spironolactone-treated Arabidopsis, the CPD gene in the BR biosynthesis pathway was up-regulated, probably due to feedback regulation caused by BR-deficiency. Spironolactone-treated tobacco plants grown in the dark showed expression of light-regulated genes as was observed in the deficient mutant. These data suggest that spironolactone inhibits brassinosteroid action probably due to the blockage of biosynthesis and exerts its activity against plants. Thus, spironolactone, in conjunction with brassinosteroid-deficient mutants, can be used to clarify the function of BRs in plants and characterize mutants. The spironolactone action site was also investigated by feeding BR biosynthesis intermediates to Arabidopsis grown in the dark, and the results are discussed.     

水稻小G蛋白OsPra2基因的克隆及功能分析

利用micro array 技术对水稻幼苗在营养胁迫条件下根部基因表达的研究中发现: 一个与豌豆Pra2(小G蛋白)基因有同源性的基因的RNA水平在营养胁迫后再补充营养时, 表达量下降。用RT-PCR和PCR方法分别获得该基因的cDNA克隆—OsPra2和该基因翻译起始位点上游1 kb的启动子序列。OsPra2基因编码的蛋白质具有结合GTP/GDP的4个保守结构域和构成小G蛋白Rab家族的特有的结构域。该基因cDNA与GST蛋白基因融合表达载体在洋葱表皮细胞中的瞬间表达结果显示该蛋白定位在在细胞膜和细胞核上, OsPra2基因启动子与GUS报告基因融合表达转基因水稻显示该基因启动子驱动GUS在胚芽鞘和根中表达, 35S启动子驱动OsPra2基因过表达转基因水稻与野生水稻株型相比明显矮化, 类似BR缺陷型植物株型。本实验还对OsPra2和P450蛋白的相互作用及在BR代谢途径中的可能作用进行了分析。     

The sucrose transporter SlSUT2 from tomato interacts with brassinosteroid functioning and affects arbuscular mycorrhiza formation

Mycorrhizal plants benefit from the fungal partners by getting better access to soil nutrients. In exchange, the plant supplies carbohydrates to the fungus. The additional carbohydrate demand in mycorrhizal plants was shown to be balanced partially by higher CO₂ assimilation and increased C metabolism in shoots and roots. In order to test the role of sucrose transport for fungal development in arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) tomato, transgenic plants with down‐regulated expression of three sucrose transporter genes were analysed. Plants that carried an antisense construct of SlSUT2 (SlSUT2as) repeatedly exhibited increased mycorrhizal colonization and the positive effect of plants to mycorrhiza was abolished. Grafting experiments between transgenic and wild‐type rootstocks and scions indicated that mainly the root‐specific function of SlSUT2 has an impact on colonization of tomato roots with the AM fungus. Localization of SISUT2 to the periarbuscular membrane indicates a role in back transport of sucrose from the periarbuscular matrix into the plant cell thereby affecting hyphal development. Screening of an expression library for SlSUT2‐interacting proteins revealed interactions with candidates involved in brassinosteroid (BR) signaling or biosynthesis. Interaction of these candidates with SlSUT2 was confirmed by bimolecular fluorescence complementation. Tomato mutants defective in BR biosynthesis were analysed with respect to mycorrhizal symbiosis and showed indeed decreased mycorrhization. This finding suggests that BRs affect mycorrhizal infection and colonization. If the inhibitory effect of SlSUT2 on mycorrhizal growth involves components of BR synthesis and of the BR signaling pathway is discussed.     

LE-ACS6启动子在LE-ACS6::GUS转基因拟南芥中的特异性

通过对不同发育时期LE-ACS6::GUS转基因拟南芥中GUS表达特异性的研究,证明LE-ACS6基因的启动子在拟南芥中也表现启动参与第一系统乙烯合成的关键酶基因的活性.在转基因拟南芥中,LE-ACS6启动子还表现响应外源生长素处理、伤害处理等多种刺激因子的特点.