Camouflage patterns in Nautilus, and their implications for cephalopod paleobiology

Cowen, R., Gertman, R. & Wiggett, Gail: Camouflage patterns in Nautilus , and their implications for cephalopod paleobiology.
Formal analysis of the pigment patterns of adult Nautilus shows that they are perfectly camouflaged for life in open water. But because of their accretionary growth pattern, juveniles are not fully camouflaged for open water: this supports previous suggestions that young Nautilus are benthonic. The principles of camouflage are used to re-assess some facets of cephalopod paleobiology. The life orientation of some early cyrtocones is re-interpreted. 'Ornament' on ammonoids is seen as camouflage structure, and we infer photic-nektonic, photic-benthonic, and aphotic habitats for three major morphological groups of ammonites. Sexual dimorphism in ammonites was probably accompanied by sexual separation in habitat, except for a short (annual) mating season. This is not inconsistent with modern cephalopod biology.     

Disruptive coloration, crypsis and edge detection in early visual processing

Many animals use concealing markings to reduce the risk of predation. These include background pattern matching (crypsis), where the coloration matches a random sample of the background and disruptive patterns, whose effectiveness has been hypothesized to lie in breaking up the body into a series of apparently unrelated objects. We have previously established the effectiveness of disruptive coloration against avian predators, using artificial moth-like stimuli with colours designed to match natural backgrounds as perceived by birds. Here, we investigate the mechanism by which disruptive patterns reduce detectability, using a computational vision model of edge detection applied to photographs of our experimental stimuli, calibrated for bird colour vision. We show that, disruptive coloration is effective by exploiting edge detection algorithms that we use to model early visual processing. Thus, 'false' edges are detected within the body rather than at its periphery, so inhibiting successful detection of the animal's body outline.     

Cytoplasmic inheritance and its implications for animal biotechnology

At fertilization, the mammalian sperm transmits the haploid paternal genome. However, it also carries a variety of other factors into the oocyte that have the potential to affect embryo development. These include mRNAs left over from spermatogenesis, mitochondria with their own DNA, cytoskeletal and contractile elements, remnants of the sperm plasma membrane and, in many species, the sperm centriole. While most of these elements are eliminated, some play essential roles in early embryogenesis. In this review, I summarize the latest information on these phenomena and indicate some of the implications for animal biotechnology and, in particular, cloning.     

Species-range-size distributions: patterns, mechanisms and implications

Species-range-size distributions have received remarkably little attention in contrast to species-abundance distributions. However, recognition of the importance of regional scale phenomena for local assemblage structure, and the emergence of 'macroecology', have begun to change this situation. A growing number of studies suggests that these distributions are, in general, approximately lognormal, although interpretation is complicated by a variety of factors. Assuming the distribution pattern to be real, it can be viewed in terms of evolutionary and ecological determinants of species occurrences, although their relative significance remains unclear. The form of the distribution has a variety of important consequences, particularly for inventories of faunas and floras and for conservation.     

Developmental integration of feather growth and pigmentation and its implications for the evolution of diet-derived coloration

Variation in avian coloration is produced by coordinated pigmentation of thousands of growing feathers that vary in shape and size. Although the functional consequences of avian coloration are frequently studied, little is known about its developmental basis, and, specifically, the rules that link feather growth to pigment uptake and synthesis. Here, we combine biochemical, modeling, and morphometric techniques to examine the developmental basis of feather pigmentation in house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus)--a species with extensive variation in both growth dynamics of ornamental feathers and their carotenoid pigmentation. We found that the rate of carotenoid uptake was constant across a wide range of feather sizes and shapes, and the relative pigmented area of feathers was independent of the total amount of deposited carotenoids. Analysis of the developmental linkage of feather growth and pigment uptake showed that the mechanisms behind partitioning the feather into pigmented and nonpigmented parts and the mechanisms regulating carotenoid uptake into growing feathers are partially independent. Carotenoid uptake strongly covaried with early elements of feather differentiation (the barb addition rate and diameter), whereas the pigmented area was most closely associated with the rate of feather growth. We suggest that strong effects of carotenoid uptake on genetically integrated mechanisms of feather growth and differentiation provide a likely route for genetic assimilation of diet-dependent coloration.     

Animal body size distributions: patterns, mechanisms and implications

Documenting the shape of the frequency distribution of species body sizes for an animal taxon appears at first sight a straightforward task. However, a variety of patterns has been reported, and a consensus is only now being reached through an understanding of how potential biases may affect observed shapes of distributions. A new body of evidence suggests that, at large scales, size distributions are right-skewed, even on logarithmic axes. If body size distributions can be described with certainty, this will allow assessment of the mechanisms proposed to generate them, and will be an important step towards understanding the structure and dynamics of animal assemblages.     

The polymerase in its labyrinth: mechanisms and implications of RNA recombination.

The wide variety of RNA viruses, and the diseases associated with them, may result in part from the capacity of RNA genomes to evolve through genetic recombination. Here we address the mechanism of RNA recombination, and ask questions about its prevalence and purpose in nature.     

斑块边缘效应的定量评价及其生态学意义

边缘效应是生态系统 (斑块 )边缘和生态过渡区所呈现出的生态效应。但由于景观性质、研究目标和斑块形状的变化 ,边缘效应影响的范围和程度差异较大。核心斑块与周边景观之间的相似性既可以增强边缘效应 ,也可以减弱边缘效应。正确理解和确定边缘效应的影响范围和程度直接关系到对野外环境观测数据的科学使用。许多情况下 ,由于未能正确认识一个生态系统(斑块 )的边缘效应 ,时常会将在边缘效应地区获得的数据与系统内部核心区的观测数据混淆使用 ,得出一些不科学的结论。边缘效应的定量评价对于进行科学的野外环境观测 ,及其在自然保护区功能区设计和生物多样性保护中具有重要意义。但如何定量评价生态系统 (斑块 )的边缘效应目前还缺乏科学有效的方法。从分析边缘效应的概念和影响因子出发 ,结合地理信息系统 ,提出了开展定量评价斑块边缘效应的方法 ,并探讨了定量研究边缘效应的生态学意义。     

A system for monitoring and improving animal visibility and its implications for zoological parks

With the growing trend in zoos to build complex, naturalistic exhibits comes the potential for exhibits to be so densely vegetated or complex that animals are not easily seen by zoo visitors. This can negatively impact the visitor's visiting experience and the zoo's ability to communicate conservation and education messages. Over the past 9 years, Disney's Animal Kingdom^® has developed a process for monitoring and improving the visibility of animals on display to the public. This animal visibility process utilizes a data collection system whereby systematic observations are collected each week. The percentage of observations where at least one animal was visible is recorded for each species and compared to an 80% visibility criterion. Species that do not reach this criterion for 4 consecutive weeks are discussed at animal management meetings. If the problems associated with animal visibility cannot be easily solved, the animal‐care teams partner with the research team to conduct a second process, called the Visibility Issues Process. This process provides additional information for the animal‐care team to utilize in developing a plan to improve visibility. Although the processes described here are specific to the infrastructure at Disney's Animal Kingdom^®, the basic concepts of (1) a formalized visibility data collection process, (2) a visibility criterion to which managers of species are held accountable, and (3) a process for planning to improve animal visibility without negatively impacting animal welfare are fundamental concepts that can be developed at individual institutions and incorporated into that zoo's existing infrastructure. Zoo Biol 29:68–79, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Myostatin and its implications on animal breeding: a review

Myostatin, or growth and differentiation factor 8 (GDF8), has been identified as the factor causing a phenotype known as double muscling, in which a series of mutations render the gene inactive, and therefore, unable to regulate muscle fibre deposition. This phenotype occurs at a high frequency in some breeds of cattle such as Belgian Blue and Peidmontese. Phylogenetic analysis has shown that there has been positive selection pressure for non-synonymous mutations within the myostatin gene family, around the time of the divergence of cattle, sheep and goats, and these positive selective pressures on non-ancestral myostatin are relatively recent. To date, there have been reports of nine mutations in coding regions of myostatin that cause non-synonymous changes, of which three cause missense mutations, including two in exon 1 and one in exon 2. The remaining six mutations, located in exons 2 and 3, result in premature stop codons, which are the mutations responsible for the double-muscling phenotype. Unfortunately, breed management problems exist for double-muscled cattle, such as birthing difficulties, which can be overcome through genetically controlled breeding programmes, as shown in this review.     

Meiotic metaphase arrest in animal oocytes: its mechanisms and biological significance

Metaphase arrest in meiosis I or II before fertilization is a common and unique feature of oogenesis in many animal species. How and why oocytes from many species are arrested at metaphase, rather than after the completion of meiosis, has long remained a mystery. This article reviews recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms and biological significance of meiotic metaphase arrest in animal oocytes.     

Rendering edge enhancement tactile phenomenon by friction variation in dynamic touch

Variable friction tactile displays have been recently used to render virtual textures and gratings. Neural basis of perceptual mechanism of detection of edge-like features resulting in discrimination of virtual gratings during active touching these tactile actuators is studied using a finite-element biomechanical model of human fingertip. The predicted neural response of the mechanoreceptors, i.e. the computed strain energy density at the location of selected mechanoreceptors as a measure of neural discharge rate of the corresponding receptors, to local reduction of friction between fingerpad and surface are shown to exhibit a similar shape as the edge enhancement phenomenon, particularly in a sudden burst at the boundary of variable friction regions. This phenomenon is supposed to account for the illusion of virtual edges rendered through the modification of contact forces. The presence of this sudden burst under varied model parameters was investigated. It was shown that while the appearance of this phenomenon in simulation results was invariant to model parameters, associated alteration of the edge enhancement ratio might be considered for the purpose of the tuning of the variable friction tactile display.     

Modified microbial fermenter performance in animal cell culture and its implications for flexible fermenter design

Modified microbial fermenters were adapted for use in animal cell cultivations within an active microbial pilot plant rapidly and inexpensively. Multiple batches of Jurkat cells (human T-lymphoma) and Spodoptera frugiperda (using a baculovirus expression vector) were conducted in modified 75 L Chemap fermenters and a 280 L pilot plant seed vessel. These retrofitted reactors were evaluated for suitable temperature control, local hot spots, surface aeration capability, open-pipe sparging, impeller type and impeller speed. Influences of these operating factors on cell growth rate, cell density, glucose uptake and protein yield were quantified. Implications for the flexible design of fermenters for operation in multiuse campaign facilities are discussed. Adaption of existing microbial fermenters was found to be an attractive route for initial implementation of cell culture capacity in a research organization.     

Vascular permeability enhancement by Vibrio mimicus protease and the mechanisms of action.

Vibrio mimicus, a causative agent of gastroenteritis, has also been reported to attribute to extraintestinal infections. Recently we have purified a metalloprotease produced by the pathogen: however, the role of the protease in V. mimicus infection has not been documented. The V. mimicus protease (VMP) was found to enhance vascular permeability and form edema when injected into the dorsal skin of guinea pig and rat. The permeability enhancement by VMP was observed in a dose-dependent manner in both guinea pig and rat skin. In guinea pig, an inhibitor of the angiotensin-converting enzyme was found to augment the permeability enhancement reaction. The permeability enhancement was significantly blocked by soybean trypsin inhibitor (SBTI), an inhibitor of plasma kallikrein reaction. In vitro conversion of plasma prekallikrein to kallikrein by VMP was also noted. In rat skin, the permeability enhancement reaction was not blocked by antihistamine or SBTI. However, the reaction was partially blocked when a mixture of antihistamine and SBTI was administered with VMP. It is apparent from the study that in guinea pig skin, VMP enhances vascular permeability through activation of plasma kallikrein-kinin system which generates bradykinin, whereas in addition to the activation of plasma kallikrein-kinin cascade in the case of rat, stimulation of histamine release from mast cells and other unknown mechanism seem to be also a cause of the permeability enhancement reaction. These results suggest that VMP may play a role in extraintestinal infections with edema caused by the pathogen.     

Two different sensory mechanisms for the control of pupal protective coloration in butterflies

The butterflies Graphium sarpedon nipponum Fruhstorfer and Papilio xuthus Linné show pupal protective color polymorphism, but the two species appear to have different sensory mechanisms for determining pupal coloration. When light was of sufficient illumination, the larvae of Graphium sarpedon became bright yellowish green pupae on white pupation boards and reddish brown pupae on black pupation boards. The pupal coloration thus strongly depended on the brightness of the pupation site. In addition, larvae became bright yellowish green pupae in complete darkness. From these results, measurement of the illumination suggested that pupal color is determined by the illuminant difference between incidence light from the dorsal direction and ventral light from a paper board; i.e., the sum of the reflected light of the board plus the penetrated light passing through the board. The illuminant difference required for reddish brown coloration was 40 lux or more. The optical signals received through the stemmata during a critical period before formation of the thorax garter (band string) were important for coloration. By contrast, in Papilio xuthus, successive tactile signals from a rough surfaced pupation site during a critical period before and after formation of the garter were important for determining brown pupal coloration.     

De-aggregatory action of prostacyclin in vivo and its enhancement by theophylline.

In the mixed venous blood of anaesthetized, heparinized cats prostacyclin de-aggregated platelet thrombi, which were formed on the surface of blood-superfused collagen strips or on the surface of blood-superfused aortic strips from atherosclerotic rabbits. The reversal of platelet aggregation by prostacyclin was still achieved 3 hrs after the formation of platelet clumps. After an intravenous injection of prostacyclin the ID50 for its de-aggregatory action was 7.5 microgram/kg. Theophylline ethyl-diamine (aminophylline), at a dose of 3 mg/kg i.v., did not reverse platelet aggregation but it enhanced the duration of the de-aggregatory action of prostacyclin; it had little effect on the hypotensive action of prostacyclin. It is concluded that prostacyclin disintegrates platelet clumps long after they are formed in heparinized blood in vivo and that its anti-platelet action, but not hypotensive action, is selectively potentiated by a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. The above experimental data indicate the possibility of the combined use of theophylline and prostacyclin in arterial thrombosis.