The removability of pesticides during the production of dialysis water (2)

In many cases it can be demonstrated that the amount of plant protectives and plant treatments (pesticides) in drinking-water exceeds the permitted levels of the drinking-water decree which will be effective on October 1st, 1989. These components are in parts toxicologically important. Therefore, an examination was made on how far pesticides are removed during the conventional purification of dialysis water, but especially during the reverse osmosis. Retention rates of a reverse osmosis plant for 14 different pesticides were discovered which were used in different concentrations and compositions. In part 2 of this contribution the results of the investigation are presented. The figures demonstrate that almost all of the examined components were retained with an effectiveness of 92-98%. The elimination efficiency did not depend on the basic concentration of the pesticides. After an initial phase of 50 h duration, the permeat concentration reached a constant value which did not alter even after more than 700 h.     

Biofouling of reverse osmosis membranes used in river water purification for drinking purposes: analysis of microbial populations

Biofouling in water treatment processes represents one of the most frequent causes of plant performance decline. Investigation of clogged membranes (reverse osmosis membranes, microfiltration membranes and ultrafiltration membranes) is generally performed on fresh membranes. In the present study, a multidisciplinary autopsy of a reverse osmosis membrane (ROM) was conducted. The membrane, which was used in sulfate-rich river water purification for drinking purposes, had become inoperative after 6 months because of biofouling and was later stored for 18 months in dry conditions before analysis. SSU rRNA gene library construction, clone sequencing, T-RFLP, light microscope, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations were used to identify the microorganisms present on the membrane and possibly responsible for biofouling at the time of removal. The microorganisms were mainly represented by bacteria belonging to the phylum Actinobacteria and by a single protozoan species belonging to the Lobosea group. The microbiological analysis was interpreted in the context of the treatment plant operations to hypothesize as to the possible mechanisms used by microorganisms to enter the plant and colonize the ROM surface.     

Biofouling of reverse osmosis membranes used in river water purification for drinking purposes: analysis of microbial populations

Biofouling in water treatment processes represents one of the most frequent causes of plant performance decline. Investigation of clogged membranes (reverse osmosis membranes, microfiltration membranes and ultrafiltration membranes) is generally performed on fresh membranes. In the present study, a multidisciplinary autopsy of a reverse osmosis membrane (ROM) was conducted. The membrane, which was used in sulfate-rich river water purification for drinking purposes, had become inoperative after 6 months because of biofouling and was later stored for 18 months in dry conditions before analysis. SSU rRNA gene library construction, clone sequencing, T-RFLP, light microscope, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) observations were used to identify the microorganisms present on the membrane and possibly responsible for biofouling at the time of removal. The microorganisms were mainly represented by bacteria belonging to the phylum Actinobacteria and by a single protozoan species belonging to the Lobosea group. The microbiological analysis was interpreted in the context of the treatment plant operations to hypothesize as to the possible mechanisms used by microorganisms to enter the plant and colonize the ROM surface.     

Elimination of botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) type B from drinking water by small-scale (personal-use) water purification devices and detection of BoNT in water samples

Seven small-scale drinking water purification devices were evaluated for their capacity to eliminate botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) type B from drinking water. Influent water inoculated with toxic Clostridium botulinum cultures and effluent purified water samples were tested for the presence of BoNT by using a standard mouse bioassay and two commercial rapid enzyme immunoassays (EIAs). The water purification devices based on filtration through ceramic or membrane filters with a pore size of 0.2 to 0.4 microm or irradiation from a low-pressure UV-lamp (254 nm) failed to remove BoNT from raw water (reduction of < 0.1 log10 units). A single device based on reverse osmosis was capable of removing the BoNT to a level below the detection limit of the mouse bioassay (reduction of > 2.3 log10 units). The rapid EIAs intended for the detection of BoNT from various types of samples failed to detect BoNT from aqueous samples containing an estimated concentration of BoNT of 396,000 ng/liter.     

Elimination of Botulinum Neurotoxin (BoNT) Type B from Drinking Water by Small-Scale (Personal-Use) Water Purification Devices and Detection of BoNT in Water Samples

Seven small-scale drinking water purification devices were evaluated for their capacity to eliminate botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) type B from drinking water. Influent water inoculated with toxic Clostridium botulinum cultures and effluent purified water samples were tested for the presence of BoNT by using a standard mouse bioassay and two commercial rapid enzyme immunoassays (EIAs). The water purification devices based on filtration through ceramic or membrane filters with a pore size of 0.2 to 0.4 μm or irradiation from a low-pressure UV-lamp (254 nm) failed to remove BoNT from raw water (reduction of <0.1 log₁₀ units). A single device based on reverse osmosis was capable of removing the BoNT to a level below the detection limit of the mouse bioassay (reduction of >2.3 log₁₀ units). The rapid EIAs intended for the detection of BoNT from various types of samples failed to detect BoNT from aqueous samples containing an estimated concentration of BoNT of 396,000 ng/liter.     

Humic substances in drinking water and the epidemiology of thyroid disease

Thyroid diseases are common in all populations but the type and frequency depends on environmental factors. In Denmark geographical differences in iodine intake are caused by different iodine contents of drinking water, which varies from < 1 to 139 microg iodine per litre. Comparative epidemiologic studies have demonstrated considerable differences in type and occurrence of thyroid disease with more goitre and hyperthyroidism in Aalborg with water iodine content around 5 microg/L, and more hypothyroidism in Copenhagen with water iodine around 20 microg/L. In Denmark, iodine in ground water is bound in humic substances, which have probably leached from marine sediments in the aquifers. Interestingly, humic substances in water from other parts of the world have goitrogenic properties, especially humic substances from coal and shale. Humic substances are heterogeneous mixtures of naturally occurring molecules, produced by decomposition of plant and animal tissues. The effect of humic substances in drinking water on the epidemiology of thyroid disease probably depends on the source of aquifer sediments.     

Sugar Syrup Concentration Using Reverse Osmosis Membranes

In sugar manufacturing industries, initially dilute syrup is obtained from the cane sugar or beetroot, which should be concentrated. In many factories, sugar syrup concentration is carried out using evaporation. This process has two main problems. Firstly, it consumes a huge amount of energy due to high latent heat of water and secondly, heating may decompose the sugar molecules resulting in low‐quality and dark‐colored sugar. Low energy consuming reverse osmosis may be employed for concentrating sugar syrup without decomposing the molecules, resulting in high‐quality sugar with low cost. In this study different commercial reverse osmosis membranes (DS, DSII, PVD, FT30, BW30) and one nanofiltration membrane (NF45) were used for sugar syrup concentration. The results show that nanofiltration NF45 membrane has no effect on sugar syrup concentration. The rejections of sugar using DSII and PVD reverse osmosis membranes vary between 23 % and 33 % for different operating conditions. DS membrane rejected around 10 % of the sugar molecules in best conditions. FT30 membrane initially showed better performance (55 %). However, the rejection was decreased during time (minimum 7 %). For BW30 membrane, the rejection of sugar was better (60 %) compared to the other membranes used in this work. For two‐stage processes (i.e. the permeate of the first stage used as a feed for the second stage) the highest rejection (88 %) was obtained.     

Occurrence and levels of pesticides in South Lebanon water

This study reviews the detection of pesticides in different surface and groundwater samples collected from South Litani region in South Lebanon during 2012. These have been analyzed using an optimized and validated solid phase extraction method followed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Organochlorine and organophosphate pesticides were mostly noted at levels below the recommended value for individual pesticide in water except pirimiphos-methyl that was recorded at 300.87 ng L^?1 in groundwater sample, designated for drinking water and collected in February. DDE concentration exceeded 100 ng L^?1 in both surface and groundwater in October. The reported results represent the first Lebanese statistical data illustrating the quantification of pesticides in water over a period of time. More importantly, it draws attention to the need of pesticides’ monitoring programs in the Lebanese water resources.     

Desalinated water hygiene and scientific bases for its investigation

In view of the increasing scarcity of fresh water reserves in many countries of the world, a thorough hygienic evaluation of the different methods of desalinating highly mineralized underground and sea waters for economic and drinking purpose becomes indispensable. In addition to generally accepted hygienic criteria (favourable organoleptic properties, innocuous chemical composition and epidemiological safety), introduction of supplementary criteria for the assessment of the characteristic of the quality of freshened drinking water is necessary, i.e., its full value in the physiological sense and stability of drinking properties. The necessity of hygienic tests concerned with the study and regulation of the mineral and microelement composition of desalinated drinking water as well as of its microbial composition, structural peculiarities, the so-called "deuterium number" and the presence of various organic substances in desalinated water was pointed out. A certain degree of priority should be given to the study of the mentioned indices in hygienic assessment of the different methods of water desalination (distillation, freezing out, ion exchange, electrodialysis, inverse osmosis and others).     

Reduction of embryotoxicity by protein in embryo culture media.

Experiments tested the hypothesis that one role of protein in embryo culture media is protection of embryos against potentially embryotoxic substances in the media. Mouse embryos were cultured in modified Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate medium and in modified Tyrode's medium, aliquots of which were supplemented with 4 mg/ml of the protein bovine serum albumin (BSA), while other aliquots were left protein free. The media were prepared using water samples that differed in purity, as reflected by differences in conductivity, with tap water being least pure (and considered to have the greatest potential for being embryotoxic) and water that had been purified by reverse osmosis, Milli-Q filtration, and triple distillation being most pure. Embryos were placed in the media while in the two-cell stage of development and their development was assessed after 24, 48, and 72 hr of culture. Rate of embryo development in BSA-supplemented media was greater than that in protein-free media only when the media were prepared with the least purified water samples. Because these water samples would have contained substances not contained in media prepared with purer water, or would have contained the substances in higher concentration, the data supported the hypothesis that protein can protect embryos during culture by negating effects of embryotoxic substances in the media.     

Optimal dosing regimen of nitric oxide donor compounds for the reduction of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm and isolates from wastewater membranes

Membrane fouling by bacterial biofilms remains a key challenge for membrane-based water purification systems. Here, the optimal biofilm dispersal potential of three nitric oxide (NO) donor compounds, viz. sodium nitroprusside, 6-(2-hydroxy-1-methyl-2-nitrosohydrazino)-N-methyl-1-hexanamine (MAHMA NONOate) and 1-(hydroxy-NNO-azoxy)-L-proline, disodium salt, was investigated using Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 as a model organism. Dispersal was quantitatively assessed by confocal microscopy [bacterial cells and the components of the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) (polysaccharides and extracellular DNA)] and colony-forming unit counts. The three NO donor compounds had different optimal exposure times and concentrations, with MAHMA NONOate being the optimal NO donor compound. Biofilm dispersal correlated with a reduction in both bacterial cells and EPS. MAHMA NONOate also reduced single species biofilms formed by bacteria isolated from industrial membrane bioreactor and reverse osmosis membranes, as well as in isolates combined to generate mixed species biofilms. The data present strong evidence for the application of these NO donor compounds for prevention of biofouling in an industrial setting.     

Kinetics of formation of humic substances in activated sludge systems and their effect on flocculation

Humic substances were isolated during batch aeration studies with activated sludge and a complex waste source, by using concentration and separation techniques that employ reverse osmosis, ultrafitration, and gel permeation chromatography. The study suggests that the formation of high molecular weight humic substances may occur after the removal of the readily available carbon source. The amount of refractory material finally present in the solution will depend on its adsorptive properties toward bacterial cells. The adsorptive characteristics may be determined by the magnitude of the carbohydrate fraction present in the humic substances. If the carbohydrate content decreases, adsorption onto the cells may decrease resulting in an impairment of both the floe formation and settleability of the sludge floes. Decreased adsorption will result in a higher total organic carbon content and an increase in color bearing materials in the effluent.     

Further Evidence that Humic Substances Have the Potential to Modulate the Reproduction of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

Humic isolates have previously been shown to modulate the reproduction of the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans Maupas . The aim of this study was to find out if a hormone‐like effect is an intrinsic feature of humic substances. Therefore, the same nematode bioassay was used with ten humic substances (XAD and/or reverse osmosis isolates). The results confirmed the hormone‐like effect of humic substances, nine isolates significantly increased the numbers of offspring per worm, one isolate did not modulate the reproduction of C. elegans. This effect occurred with XAD isolates and with reverse osmosis isolates as well. Thus, this effect is an intrinsic feature of humic substances. This reproduction modulating potential of humic substances may be due to alkylaromatics that are major structural and photo stable structural components, rather than to sterols that are only minor structural components. This is a new view about the direct interactions of humic with aquatic organisms. The effects haven been mathematically modeled by a simple approach, considering a hormone‐like effect (β) and a non‐hormone like effect, such as nutrient effect (α) on growth. The different effects observed can be interpreted in terms of trade‐offs between these two competing mode of actions.     

Chemical Contamination of California Drinking Water

Drinking water contamination by toxic chemicals has become widely recognized as a public health concern since the discovery of 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane in California''s Central Valley in 1979. Increased monitoring since then has shown that other pesticides and industrial chemicals are present in drinking water. Contaminants of drinking water also include naturally occurring substances such as asbestos and even the by-products of water chlorination. Public water systems, commercially bottled and vended water and mineral water are regulated, and California is also taking measures to prevent water pollution by chemicals through various new laws and programs.     

Use of electrodialysis and reverse osmosis for the recovery and concentration of ammonia from swine manure

This project aimed at producing a concentrated nitrogen fertilizer from liquid swine manure using electrodialysis (ED) and reverse osmosis (RO), as a mean to help resolve the excess nutrient problem faced by many swine producers, and offer an alternative to chemical nitrogen fertilizer production. Different types of ED membranes were evaluated based on the NH4+ transfer rate, current efficiency and membrane stability. A combination of CMB/AMX membranes was retained due to its high NH4+ transfer rate and chemical stability. The maximum total ammonia concentration (NH3-N) achievable by ED was limited by water transport from the manure to the concentrate compartment, and ammonia volatilization (17%) from the open concentrate compartment. Results suggested that, under the conditions of this experiment, a maximum total NH3-N concentration of about 16g/L could be reached with the ED system. An ED concentrate (8.7g/L of total NH3-N) was also fed to TFC-HF reverse osmosis membranes. A mass balance analysis revealed that the RO permeate, which represented 49.6% of the initial volume, contained 8.6% of the ammonia. However, the RO concentrate contained only 66.6% of the initial total NH3-N, suggesting that 21.2% of the ammonia was volatilized during the concentration test with RO membranes. Ammonia concentration in the RO concentrate reached approximately 13g/L, which is similar to the maximum concentration that could be achieved by ED. These results suggest that the use of ED and RO membranes to recover and concentrate ammonia is potentially interesting but the process must include an approach to minimize ammonia volatilization or trap volatilized ammonia.     

Disinfection of drinking water by using a novel electrochemical reactor employing carbon-cloth electrodes.

A novel electrochemical reactor employing carbon-cloth electrodes was constructed for disinfection of drinking water. Escherichia coli K-12 (10(2) cells per cm3) was sterilized when a cell suspension was passed through the reactor at a dilution rate of 6.0 h-1, and a potential of 0.7 V versus a saturated calomel electrode was applied to an electrode. The survival ratio increased with increasing dilution rate but was less than 0.1% at dilution rates of less than 6.0 h-1. Although the survival ratio increased with increasing cell concentration above 10(3) cells per cm3, the disinfection rate also increased. The disinfection rate was 6.0 x 10(2) cells per cm3 per h at a cell concentration of 10(2) cells per cm3. Continuous sterilization of E. coli cells was carried out for 24 h. Sterilization is based on an electrochemical reaction between the electrode and the cell which is mediated by intracellular coenzyme A. Sterilization of drinking water by using this reactor was successfully performed, demonstrating the potential of such a reactor for clean and efficient water purification.     

Disinfection of drinking water by using a novel electrochemical reactor employing carbon-cloth electrodes.

A novel electrochemical reactor employing carbon-cloth electrodes was constructed for disinfection of drinking water. Escherichia coli K-12 (10(2) cells per cm3) was sterilized when a cell suspension was passed through the reactor at a dilution rate of 6.0 h-1, and a potential of 0.7 V versus a saturated calomel electrode was applied to an electrode. The survival ratio increased with increasing dilution rate but was less than 0.1% at dilution rates of less than 6.0 h-1. Although the survival ratio increased with increasing cell concentration above 10(3) cells per cm3, the disinfection rate also increased. The disinfection rate was 6.0 x 10(2) cells per cm3 per h at a cell concentration of 10(2) cells per cm3. Continuous sterilization of E. coli cells was carried out for 24 h. Sterilization is based on an electrochemical reaction between the electrode and the cell which is mediated by intracellular coenzyme A. Sterilization of drinking water by using this reactor was successfully performed, demonstrating the potential of such a reactor for clean and efficient water purification.     

Mouse inbred strain differences in ethanol drinking to intoxication

Recently, we described a simple procedure, Drinking in the Dark (DID), in which C57BL/6J mice self-administer ethanol to a blood ethanol concentration (BEC) above 1 mg/ml. The test consists of replacing the water with 20% ethanol in the home cage for 4 h early during the dark phase of the light/dark cycle. Three experiments were conducted to explore this high ethanol drinking model further. In experiment 1, a microanalysis of C57BL/6J behavior showed that the pattern of ethanol drinking was different from routine water intake. In experiment 2, drinking impaired performance of C57BL/6J on the accelerating rotarod and balance beam. In experiment 3, 12 inbred strains were screened to estimate genetic influences on DID and correlations with other traits. Large, reliable differences in intake and BEC were detected among the strains, with C57BL/6J showing the highest values. Strain means were positively correlated with intake and BEC in the standard (24 h) and a limited (4 h) two-bottle ethanol vs. water test, but BECs reached higher levels for DID. Strain mean correlations with other traits in the Mouse Phenome Project database supported previously reported genetic relationships of high ethanol drinking with low chronic ethanol withdrawal severity and low ethanol-conditioned taste aversion. We extend these findings by showing that the correlation estimates remain relatively unchanged even after correcting for phylogenetic relatedness among the strains, thus relaxing the assumption that the strain means are statistically independent. We discuss applications of the model for finding genes that predispose pharmacologically significant drinking in mice.     

海洋微生物抗菌脂肽及新生物农药研发

近年来,微生物脂肽作为生物农药的研究与应用,在国内外得到了广泛重视,成为今后生物农药发展的一个重要方向。从不同生境分离获得多批海洋微生物,通过筛选抗植物病原真菌活性强的菌株,发酵、分离、纯化及鉴定其代谢产物,从3种芽胞杆菌中发现了6个新的抗菌脂肽,属于iturins和fengycin类化合物。芽胞杆菌的芽胞及脂肽可研发防治植物真菌病害新生物农药。