Apolipoprotein E acts to increase nitric oxide production in macrophages by stimulating arginine transport

Previous studies have shown that apolipoprotein E (apoE) plays a role in immune function by modulating tissue redox balance. Using a mouse macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7), we have examined the mechanism by which apoE regulates nitric oxide (NO) production in macrophages. ApoE potentiates NO production in immune activated RAW cells in combination with lipopolysaccharide or polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (PIC), agents known to induce expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA and protein. The effect is not observed with apolipoprotein B or heat-inactivated apoE. The combination of PIC plus apoE produced more NO than the level expected from an additive effect of PIC and apoE alone. Furthermore, this increase was observed at submaximal extracellular arginine concentrations, suggesting that apoE altered arginine (substrate) availability. Examination of [(3)H]arginine uptake across the cell membrane demonstrated that arginine uptake was increased by PIC but further increased by PIC plus apoE. Treatment of RAW cells with apoE was associated with an increased apparent V(max) and decreased affinity for arginine as well as a switch in the induction of mRNA for subtypes of cationic amino acid transporters (CAT). Treatment of RAW cells with PIC plus apoE resulted in the loss of detectable CAT1 mRNA and expression of CAT2 mRNA. Regulation of arginine availability is a novel action of apoE on the regulation of macrophage function and the immune response.     

Regulation of nitric oxide production from macrophages by lipopolysaccharide and catecholamines.

Catecholamines are elaborated in stress responses to mediate vasoconstriction, and elevate systemic vascular resistance and blood pressure. They are elaborated in disorders such as sepsis, cocaine abuse, and cardiovascular disease. The aim of the study was to determine whether catecholamines affect nitric oxide (NO) production, as NO is a vasodilator and counteracts the harmful effects of catecholamines. RAW264.7 macrophage cells were cultured with lipopolysaccharide (LPS)+/-epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine at 5x10(-6)M concentrations for 24h. Supernatants were harvested for measuring NO by spectrophotometry using the Greiss reagent and cells were harvested for detecting inducible NO synthase (iNOS) by Western blot. NO production in RAW 264.7 macrophages was increased significantly by addition of LPS (0.5-10ng/ml) in a dose-dependent fashion. The NO production induced by LPS was further enhanced by epinephrine and norepinephrine, and to a lesser extent by dopamine. These increases in NO correlated with expression of iNOS protein in these cells. The enhancing effect of iNOS synthesis by epinephrine and norepinephrine on LPS-induced macrophages was down regulated by beta-adrenoceptor antagonist, propranolol, and dexamethasone. The results suggest that catecholamines have a synergic effect on LPS in induction of iNOS synthesis and NO production, and this may mediate some of the vascular effects of infection. These data support a novel role for catecholamines in disorders such as septic shock and cocaine use, and indicate that beta-adrenoceptor antagonists and glucocorticoids may be used therapeutically for modulation of the catecholamine-NO axis in disease states.     

Sustained nitric oxide production in macrophages requires the arginine transporter CAT2

The aberrant production of nitric oxide (NO) contributes to the pathogenesis of diseases as diverse as cancer and arthritis. Sustained NO production via the inducible enzyme, nitric-oxide synthase 2 (NOS2), requires extracellular arginine uptake. Three closely related cationic amino acid transporter genes (Cat1-3) encode the transporters that mediate most arginine uptake in mammalian cells. Because CAT2 is induced coordinately with NOS2 in numerous cell types, we investigated a possible role for CAT2-mediated arginine transport in regulating NO production. The complexity of arginine transport systems and their biochemically similar transport properties called for a genetic approach to determine the role of CAT2. CAT2-deficient mice were generated and found to be healthy and fertile in contrast to Cat1(-/-) animals. Analysis of cytokine-activated macrophages from Cat2(-/-) mice revealed a 92% reduction in NO production and a 95% reduction in l-Arg uptake. The reduction in NO production was not due to differences in NOS2 protein expression, NOS2 activity, or intracellular l-arginine content. In conclusion, our results show that sustained abundant NO synthesis by macrophages requires arginine transport via the CAT2 transporter.     

Regulation of prostaglandin production by nitric oxide in rat smooth muscle myometrial cells.

Smooth muscle myometrial cells isolated by an enzymatic method from estrogenized rats were used after 7-10 days of culture. They were incubated for 24 h with two distinct competitive nitric oxide (NO) inhibitors: NG-monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA: 300 microM) and L-nitro-arginine methylester (L-NAME: 600 microM, 5 mM and 10 mM). Afterwards, the supernatants were separated in order to measure nitrite production and prostaglandin PGE synthesis. In the present report, we demonstrate that myometrial cells from estrogenized rats are able to produce NO, since all the inhibitors significantly decrease the production of nitrites in the culture media. Furthermore, we report that both inhibitors inhibited PGE synthesis by myometrial cells. We also used a donor of NO in the incubation medium for 24 h, sodium nitroprusside (NP), obtaining an strong (P< 0.001) increase in both nitrite and PGE production. We conclude that myometrial cells can produce NO and that one possible role of the NO synthetized by this cells may be the modulation of PGE production.     

Evaluation of nitric oxide production by lactobacilli

Six strains of Lactobacillus fermentum and Lactobacillus plantarum were investigated for nitric oxide (NO) production. First, the potential presence of NO synthase was examined. None of the strains of L. fermentum and L. plantarum examined produced NO from L-arginine under aerobic conditions. Interestingly, all L. fermentum strains expressed strong L-arginine deiminase activity. All L. fermentum strains produced NO in MRS broth, but the NO was found to be chemically derived from nitrite, which was produced by L. fermentum from nitrate present in the medium. Indeed all L. fermentum strains express nitrate reductase under anaerobic conditions. Moreover, one strain, L. fermentum LF1, had nitrate reductase activity under aerobic conditions. It was also found that L. fermentum strains JCM1173 and LF1 possessed ammonifying nitrite reductase. The latter strain also had denitrifying nitrite reductase activity at neutral pH under both anaerobic and aerobic conditions. The LF1 strain is thus capable of biochemically converting nitrate to NO. NO and nitrite produced from nitrate by lactobacilli may constitute a potential antimicrobial mechanism. studied in a rat acute liver injury model (Adawi et al. 1997). The results indicate that Lactobacillus plantarum DSM 9842 may possess NOS (Adawi et al. 1997). However, NO production from L-arginine has not been investigated in pure cultures of L. plantarum. According to the results of a 15N enrichment experiment, traces of (NO2-+NO3-)-N (total oxidised nitrogen: TON), which seemed to be formed by the resting cells of Lactobacillus fermentum IFO3956, appeared to be derived from L-arginine (Morita et al. 1997). Therefore, it was suggested that L. fermentum may possess a NOS. However, NO produced from L-arginine was not directly measured and a NOS inhibitor test was not performed by Morita et al. (1997). It is known that L-arginine deiminase (ADI) in bacteria may convert L-arginine to NH4+ (Cunin et al. 1986), which may be further oxidised to TON via nitrification by bacteria. Therefore, 15N enrichment experiments could not definitely conclude that L. fermentum possess NOS to convert L-arginine directly to NO. In this study, six Lactobacillus strains belonging to L. plantarum and L. fermentum were measured for NO production in MRS broth. The metabolism of nitrate and L-arginine by the Lactobacillus cell suspensions was also studied. The possibility that NO and nitrite production by lactobacilli may be a potential probiotic trait is also discussed.     

Coinduction of endothelial nitric oxide synthase and arginine recycling enzymes in aorta of diabetic rats.

Decreased availability of arginine and impaired production of NO (nitric oxide) have been implicated in the development of endothelial dysfunction. Citrulline formed by the NOS reaction is recycled to arginine by the citrulline-NO cycle, which is composed of NOS, argininosuccinate synthetase (AS), and argininosuccinate lyase. Therefore, we investigated the alterations of these enzymes in the aorta of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. eNOS and AS mRNAs were increased by three- to fourfold 1-2 weeks after STZ treatment and decreased at 4 weeks. AL mRNA was weakly induced. Induction of eNOS and AS proteins was also observed. Cationic amino acid transporter (CAT)-1 mRNA remained little changed, and CAT-2 mRNA was not detected. The plasma nitrogen oxide levels were increased 1-2 weeks after STZ treatment and decreased at 4 weeks. Transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) mRNA in the aorta was also induced. TGF-beta1 induced eNOS and AS mRNAs in human umbilical vein endothelial cells but inhibited the proliferation of HUVEC. These results indicate that eNOS and AS are coinduced in the aorta in early stages of STZ-induced diabetic rats and that the induction is mediated by TGF-beta1. The results also suggest that TGF-beta1 works antiatherogenically at early stages of diabetes by increasing NO production, whereas prolonged elevation of TGF-beta1 functions atherogenically by inhibiting endothelial cell growth.     

Regulation of nitric oxide production in response to skeletal muscle activation

Nitric oxide(NO) is synthesized in normal muscle fibers by the neuronal (nNOS) andthe endothelial (ecNOS) isoforms of nitric oxide synthase (NOS). NOcontributes to the regulation of several processes such asexcitation-contraction coupling and mitochondrial respiration. Weassessed in this study whether NO production is regulated in responseto an acute increase in muscle activation. Three groups ofanesthetized, tracheostomized, spontaneously breathing rats wereexamined after an experimental period of 3 h. Group 1 served as a control (no loading), whereasgroups 2 and3 were exposed to moderate and severeinspiratory resistive loads, respectively, which elicited trachealpressures of 30 and 70% of maximum, respectively. Ventilatory(diaphragm, intercostal, and transverse abdominis) and limb(gastrocnemius) muscles were excised at the end of the experimentalperiod and examined for NOS activity and NOS protein expression.Neither submaximal nor maximum tracheal pressures were altered after 3 h of resistive loading. Diaphragmatic and intercostal muscle NOSactivities declined significantly in response to moderate and severeloading, whereas those of transverse abdominis and gastrocnemiusmuscles remained unchanged. On the other hand, resistive loading had nosignificant effect on ventilatory and limb muscle NOS isoformexpression. We propose that a contraction-induced decline in muscle NOSactivity represents a compensatory mechanism through which musclecontractility and mitochondrial function are protected from theinhibitory influence of NO.

     

N-acetylcysteine inhibits in vivo nitric oxide production by inducible nitric oxide synthase.

This in vivo study evaluates the effect of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) administration on nitric oxide (NO) production by the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). NO production was induced in the rat by the ip administration of 2 mg/100 g lipopolysaccharide (LPS). This treatment caused: (1) a decrease in body temperature within 90 min, followed by a slow return to normal levels; (2) an increase in plasma levels of urea, nitrite/nitrate, and citrulline; (3) the appearance in blood of nitrosyl-hemoglobin (NO-Hb) and in liver of dinitrosyl-iron-dithiolate complexes (DNIC); and (4) increased expression of iNOS mRNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Rat treatment with 15 mg/100 g NAC ip, 30 min before LPS, resulted in a significant decrease in blood NO-Hb levels, plasma nitrite/nitrate and citrulline concentrations, and liver DNIC complexes. PBMC also showed a decreased expression of iNOS mRNA. NAC pretreatment did not modify the increased levels of plasma urea or the hypothermic effect induced by the endotoxin. The administration of NAC following LPS intoxication (15 min prior to sacrifice) did not affect NO-Hb levels. These results demonstrate that NAC administration can modulate the massive NO production induced by LPS. This can be attributed mostly to the inhibitory effect of NAC on one of the events leading to iNOS protein expression. This hypothesis is also supported by the lack of effect of late NAC administration.     

Cadmium reduces nitric oxide production by impairing phosphorylation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase.

Cadmium (Cd) perturbs vascular health and interferes with endothelial function. However, the effects of exposing endothelial cells to low doses of Cd on the production of nitric oxide (NO) are largely unknown. The objective of the present study was to evaluate these effects by using low levels of CdCl2 concentrations, ranging from 10 to 1000 nmol/L. Cd perturbations in endothelial function were studied by employing wound-healing and MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assays. The results suggest that a CdCl2 concentration of 100 nmol/L maximally attenuated NO production, cellular migration, and energy metabolism in endothelial cells. An egg yolk angiogenesis model was employed to study the effect of Cd exposure on angiogenesis. The results demonstrate that NO supplementation restored Cd-attenuated angiogenesis. Immunofluorescence, Western blot, and immuno-detection studies showed that low levels of Cd inhibit NO production in endothelial cells by blocking eNOS phosphorylation, which is possibly linked to processes involving endothelial function and dysfunction, including angiogenesis.     

Regulation of peroxiredoxins by nitric oxide in immunostimulated macrophages

Reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide (NO) are capable of both mediating redox-sensitive signal transduction and eliciting cell injury. The interplay between these messengers is quite complex, and intersection of their signaling pathways as well as regulation of their fluxes requires tight control. In this regard, peroxiredoxins (Prxs), a recently identified family of six thiol peroxidases, are central because they reduce H2O2, organic peroxides, and peroxynitrite. Here we provide evidence that endogenously produced NO participates in protection of murine primary macrophages against oxidative and nitrosative stress by inducing Prx I and VI expression at mRNA and protein levels. We also show that NO prevented the sulfinylation-dependent inactivation of 2-Cys Prxs, a reversible overoxidation that controls H2O2 signaling. In addition, studies using macrophages from sulfiredoxin (Srx)-deficient mice indicated that regeneration of 2-Cys Prxs to the active form was dependent on Srx. Last, we show that NO increased Srx expression and hastened Srx-dependent recovery of 2-Cys Prxs. We therefore propose that modulation by NO of Prx expression and redox state, as well as up-regulation of Srx expression, constitutes a novel pathway that contributes to antioxidant response and control of H2O2-mediated signal transduction in mammals.     

Regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase by self-generated NO

A ferric heme-nitric oxide (NO) complex can build up in mouse inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) during NO synthesis from L-arginine. We investigated its formation kinetics, effect on catalytic activity, dependence on solution NO concentration, and effect on enzyme oxygen response (apparent KmO2). Heme-NO complex formation was biphasic and was linked kinetically to an inhibition of electron flux and catalysis in iNOS. Experiments that utilized a superoxide generating system to scavenge NO showed that the magnitude of heme-NO complex formation directly depended on the NO concentration achieved in the reaction solution. However, a minor portion of heme-NO complex (20%) still formed during NO synthesis even when solution NO was completely scavenged. Formation of the intrinsic heme-NO complex, and the heme-NO complex related to buildup of solution NO, increased the apparent KmO2 of iNOS by 10- and 4-fold, respectively. Together, the data show heme-NO complex buildup in iNOS is due to both intrinsic NO binding and to equilibrium binding of solution NO, with the latter predominating when NO reaches high nanomolar to low micromolar concentrations. This behavior distinguishes iNOS from the other NOS isoforms and indicates a more complex regulation is possible for its activity and oxygen response in biologic settings.     

Regulation of neuronal proliferation and differentiation by nitric oxide

Many studies have revealed the free radical nitric oxide (NO) to be an important modulator of vascular and neuronal physiology. It also plays a developmental role in regulating synapse formation and patterning. Recent studies suggest that NO may also mediate the switch from proliferation to differentiation during neurogenesis. Many mechanisms of this response are conserved between neuronal precursor cells and the cells of the vascular system, where NO can inhibit the proliferative response of endothelial and smooth-muscle cells to injury. In cultured neuroblastoma cells, NO synthase (NOS) expression is increased in the presence of various growth factors and mitogens. Subsequent production of NO leads to cessation of cell division and the acquisition of a differentiated phenotype. The inhibitory action of NO on neuroblast proliferation has also been demonstrated in vivo for vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems, as well as in the adult brain. Potential downstream effectors of NO include the second messenger cyclic GMP, activation of the tumor-suppressor genes p53 and Rb, and the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21. These studies highlight a new role for NO in the nervous system, as a coordinator of proliferation and patterning during neural development and adult neurogenesis.     

Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and enzymes of arginine metabolism in Fusarium kyushuense-exposed mouse lung.

Expression of inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS) and related enzymes of arginine metabolism in the mouse lung exposed to filamentous fungus Fusarium kyushuense was studied by RNA blot, immunoblot, and histological analyses. When mice were exposed intranasally to the fungi only once, no induction of iNOS mRNA was observed. However, when the animals were infected again 6 days after the first exposure, iNOS mRNA was induced, reached a maximum 12-24 h after the exposure, and decreased to an undetectable level at 48 h. mRNAs for cationic amino acid transporter-2 (CAT2) and argininosuccinate synthetase were induced gradually, reached a maximum at 24 h, and decreased at 48 h. Arginase II mRNA increased at 24 h and decreased markedly at 48 h. On the other hand, arginase I mRNA started to increase at 24 h and reached to a much higher level at 48 h. Ornithine decarboxylase and ornithine aminotransferase mRNAs were also induced. Immunoblot analysis showed that iNOS, argininosuccinate synthetase, and arginase I and II proteins were induced with similar kinetics as those of their respective mRNAs. In histological examination, fungal elements were observed in the bronchoalveolar lumen at 3-6 h, decreased at 12 h, and almost disappeared at 48 h. Small granuloma appeared 3 h after the infection and their size increased with time. These results suggest that NO is produced in the mouse lung in response to F. kyushuense exposure and that the NO production is regulated by CAT2, the citrulline-NO cycle, and arginase isoforms. Enhanced synthesis of polyamines and proline (and thus collagen) is also suggested.     

Regulation of obesity and insulin resistance by nitric oxide

Obesity is a risk factor for developing type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease and has quickly become a worldwide pandemic with few tangible and safe treatment options. Although it is generally accepted that the primary cause of obesity is energy imbalance, i.e., the calories consumed are greater than are utilized, understanding how caloric balance is regulated has proven a challenge. Many “distal” causes of obesity, such as the structural environment, occupation, and social influences, are exceedingly difficult to change or manipulate. Hence, molecular processes and pathways more proximal to the origins of obesity—those that directly regulate energy metabolism or caloric intake—seem to be more feasible targets for therapy. In particular, nitric oxide (NO) is emerging as a central regulator of energy metabolism and body composition. NO bioavailability is decreased in animal models of diet-induced obesity and in obese and insulin-resistant patients, and increasing NO output has remarkable effects on obesity and insulin resistance. This review discusses the role of NO in regulating adiposity and insulin sensitivity and places its modes of action into context with the known causes and consequences of metabolic disease.     

Regulation of the mammalian heart function by nitric oxide

The mammalian heart expresses all three isoforms of nitric oxide synthases (NOS) in diverse cell types of the myocardium. Despite their apparent promiscuity, the NOS isoforms support specific signaling because of their subcellular compartmentation with colocalized effectors and limited diffusibility of NO in muscle cells. eNOS and nNOS sustain normal EC coupling and contribute to the early and late phases of the Frank-Starling mechanism of the heart. They also attenuate the beta1-/beta2-adrenergic increase in inotropy and chronotropy, and reinforce the pre- and post-synaptic vagal control of cardiac contraction. By doing so, the NOS protect the heart against excessive stimulation by catecholamines, just as an "endogenous beta-blocker". In the ischemic and failing myocardium, induced iNOS further reinforces this effect, as does eNOS coupled to overexpressed beta3-adrenoceptors. nNOS expression also increases in the aging and infarcted heart, but its role (compensatory or deleterious) is less clear. In addition to their direct regulation of contractility, the NOS modulate oxygen consumption, substrate utilization, sensitivity to apoptosis, hypertrophy and regenerative potential, all of which illustrate the pleiotropic effects of this radical on the cardiac cell biology.     

Regulation of xanthine oxidase by nitric oxide and peroxynitrite

Xanthine oxidase (XO) is a central mechanism of oxidative injury as occurs following ischemia. During the early period of reperfusion, both nitric oxide (NO(*)) and superoxide (O-*(2)) generation are increased leading to the formation of peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)); however, questions remain regarding the presence and nature of the interactions of NO(*) or ONOO(-) with XO and the role of this process in regulating oxidant generation. Therefore, we determined the dose-dependent effects of NO(*) and ONOO(-) on the O-*(2) generation and enzyme activity of XO, respectively, by EPR spin trapping of O-*(2) using 5-(diethoxyphosphoryl)-5-methyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide and spectrophotometric assay. ONOO(-) markedly inhibited both O-*(2) generation and XO activity in dose-dependent manner, while NO(*) from NO(*) gas in concentrations up to 200 microM had no effect. Furthermore, we observed that NO(*) donors such as NOR-1 also inhibited O-*(2) generation and XO activity; however, these effects were O-*(2)-dependent and blocked by superoxide dismutase or ONOO(-) scavengers. Finally, we found that ONOO(-) totally abolished the Mo(V) EPR spectrum. These changes were irreversible, suggesting oxidative disruption of the critical molybdenum center of the catalytic site. Thus, ONOO(-) formed in biological systems can feedback and down-regulate XO activity and O-*(2) generation, which in turn may serve to limit further ONOO(-) formation.     

Regulation of neuronal growth cone filopodia by nitric oxide

Nitric oxide (NO) has been proposed to play an important role during neuronal development. Since many of its effects occur during the time of growth cone pathfinding and target interaction, we here test the hypothesis that part of NO's effects might be exerted at the growth cone. We found that low concentrations of the NO-donors DEA/NO, SIN-1, and SNP caused a rapid and transient elongation of filopodia as well as a reduction in filopodial number. These effects resulted from distinct changes in filopodial extension and retraction rates. Our novel findings suggest that NO could play a physiological role by temporarily changing a growth cone's morphology and switching its behavior from a close-range to a long-range exploratory mode. We subsequently dissected the pathway by which NO acted on growth cones. The effect of NO donors on filopodial length could be blocked by 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one, an inhibitor of soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), indicating that NO acted via sGC. Supporting this idea, injection of cyclic GMP (cGMP) mimicked the effect of NO donors on growth cone filopodia. Moreover, application of NO-donors as well as injection of cGMP elicited a rapid and transient rise in intracellular calcium in growth cones, indicating that NO acted via cGMP to elevate calcium. This calcium rise, as well as the morphological effects of SIN-1 on filopodia, were blocked by preventing calcium entry. Given the role of filopodia in axonal guidance, our new data suggest that NO could function at the neuronal growth cone as an intracellular and/or intercellular signaling molecule by affecting steering decisions during neuronal pathfinding.