Acetate is the preferred substrate for long-chain fatty acid synthesis in isolated spinach chloroplasts.

1. Commercially available [2-14C]pyruvate and [2-14C]malonate were found to contain 3-6% (w/w) of [14C]acetate. 2. The contaminating [14C]acetate was efficiently utilized for fatty acid synthesis by isolated chloroplasts, whereas the parent materials were poorer substrates. 3. Maximum incorporation rates of the different substrates examined were (ng-atoms of C/h per mg of chlorophyll): [1-14C]acetate, 2676; [2-14C]pyruvate, 810; H14CO3-, 355; [2-14C]malonate, 19. 4. Products of CO2 fixation were probably not a significant carbon source for fatty acid synthesis in the presence of exogenous acetate.     

Mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis in Trypanosoma brucei

Whereas other organisms utilize type I or type II synthases to make fatty acids, trypanosomatid parasites such as Trypanosoma brucei are unique in their use of a microsomal elongase pathway (ELO) for de novo fatty acid synthesis (FAS). Because of the unusual lipid metabolism of the trypanosome, it was important to study a second FAS pathway predicted by the genome to be a type II synthase. We localized this pathway to the mitochondrion, and RNA interference (RNAi) or genomic deletion of acyl carrier protein (ACP) and beta-ketoacyl-ACP synthase indicated that this pathway is likely essential for bloodstream and procyclic life cycle stages of the parasite. In vitro assays show that the largest major fatty acid product of the pathway is C16, whereas the ELO pathway, utilizing ELOs 1, 2, and 3, synthesizes up to C18. To demonstrate mitochondrial FAS in vivo, we radio-labeled fatty acids in cultured procyclic parasites with [(14)C]pyruvate or [(14)C]threonine, either of which is catabolized to [(14)C]acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrion. Although some of the [(14)C]acetyl-CoA may be utilized by the ELO pathway, a striking reduction in radiolabeled fatty acids following ACP RNAi confirmed that it is also consumed by mitochondrial FAS. ACP depletion by RNAi or gene knockout also reduces lipoic acid levels and drastically decreases protein lipoylation. Thus, octanoate (C8), the precursor for lipoic acid synthesis, must also be a product of mitochondrial FAS. Trypanosomes employ two FAS systems: the unconventional ELO pathway that synthesizes bulk fatty acids and a mitochondrial pathway that synthesizes specialized fatty acids that are likely utilized intramitochondrially.     

Mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis and respiration

Recent studies have revealed that mitochondria are able to synthesize fatty acids in a malonyl-CoA/acyl carrier protein (ACP)-dependent manner. This pathway resembles bacterial fatty acid synthesis (FAS) type II, which uses discrete, nuclearly encoded proteins. Experimental evidence, obtained mainly through using yeast as a model system, indicates that this pathway is essential for mitochondrial respiratory function. Curiously, the deficiency in mitochondrial FAS cannot be complemented by inclusion of fatty acids in the culture medium or by products of the cytosolic FAS complex. Defects in mitochondrial FAS in yeast result in the inability to grow on nonfermentable carbon sources, the loss of mitochondrial cytochromes a/a3 and b, mitochondrial RNA processing defects, and loss of cellular lipoic acid. Eukaryotic FAS II generates octanoyl-ACP, a substrate for mitochondrial lipoic acid synthase. Endogenous lipoic acid synthesis challenges the hypothesis that lipoic acid can be provided as an exogenously supplied vitamin. Purified eukaryotic FAS II enzymes are catalytically active in vitro using substrates with an acyl chain length of up to 16 carbon atoms. However, with the exception of 3-hydroxymyristoyl-ACP, a component of respiratory complex I in higher eukaryotes, the fate of long-chain fatty acids synthesized by the mitochondrial FAS pathway remains an enigma. The linkage of FAS II genes to published animal models for human disease supports the hypothesis that mitochondrial FAS dysfunction leads to the development of disorders in mammals.     

Structure of the human beta-ketoacyl [ACP] synthase from the mitochondrial type II fatty acid synthase

Two distinct ways of organizing fatty acid biosynthesis exist: the multifunctional type I fatty acid synthase (FAS) of mammals, fungi, and lower eukaryotes with activities residing on one or two polypeptides; and the dissociated type II FAS of prokaryotes, plastids, and mitochondria with individual activities encoded by discrete genes. The beta-ketoacyl [ACP] synthase (KAS) moiety of the mitochondrial FAS (mtKAS) is targeted by the antibiotic cerulenin and possibly by the other antibiotics inhibiting prokaryotic KASes: thiolactomycin, platensimycin, and the alpha-methylene butyrolactone, C75. The high degree of structural similarity between mitochondrial and prokaryotic KASes complicates development of novel antibiotics targeting prokaryotic KAS without affecting KAS domains of cytoplasmic FAS. KASes catalyze the C(2) fatty acid elongation reaction using either a Cys-His-His or Cys-His-Asn catalytic triad. Three KASes with different substrate specificities participate in synthesis of the C(16) and C(18) products of prokaryotic FAS. By comparison, mtKAS carries out all elongation reactions in the mitochondria. We present the X-ray crystal structures of the Cys-His-His-containing human mtKAS and its hexanoyl complex plus the hexanoyl complex of the plant mtKAS from Arabidopsis thaliana. The structures explain (1) the bimodal (C(6) and C(10)-C(12)) substrate preferences leading to the C(8) lipoic acid precursor and long chains for the membranes, respectively, and (2) the low cerulenin sensitivity of the human enzyme; and (3) reveal two different potential acyl-binding-pocket extensions. Rearrangements taking place in the active site, including subtle changes in the water network, indicate a change in cooperativity of the active-site histidines upon primer binding.     

Stimulation of fatty acid synthesis in vitro by gonadotrophin-induced testicular ribonucleic acid

RNA from testes of hypophysectomized rats treated with follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone markedly stimulates in vitro the incorporation of acetate and malonate (as CoA derivatives) into polyunsaturated fatty acids. The system in vitro contains the components necessary for both protein and fatty acid synthesis. That the RNA is a hormone-induced messenger type that causes enzyme synthesis that then causes fatty acid synthesis is supported by the following observations: (1) the stimulation of RNA synthesis by follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone is decreased by injection of the animals with actinomycin D; (2) puromycin in the system in vitro decreases the synthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids; (3) the activity of the RNA preparation is destroyed by digestion with ribonuclease; in fact, the digest is inhibitory, which is a characteristic of messenger-RNA-mediated protein synthesis; (4) protein that might be denatured enzyme is virtually absent from the effective RNA preparations.     

Mammalian ACSF3 protein is a malonyl-CoA synthetase that supplies the chain extender units for mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis

The objective of this study was to identify a source of intramitochondrial malonyl-CoA that could be used for de novo fatty acid synthesis in mammalian mitochondria. Because mammalian mitochondria lack an acetyl-CoA carboxylase capable of generating malonyl-CoA inside mitochondria, the possibility that malonate could act as a precursor was investigated. Although malonyl-CoA synthetases have not been identified previously in animals, interrogation of animal protein sequence databases identified candidates that exhibited sequence similarity to known prokaryotic forms. The human candidate protein ACSF3, which has a predicted N-terminal mitochondrial targeting sequence, was cloned, expressed, and characterized as a 65-kDa acyl-CoA synthetase with extremely high specificity for malonate and methylmalonate. An arginine residue implicated in malonate binding by prokaryotic malonyl-CoA synthetases was found to be positionally conserved in animal ACSF3 enzymes and essential for activity. Subcellular fractionation experiments with HEK293T cells confirmed that human ACSF3 is located exclusively in mitochondria, and RNA interference experiments verified that this enzyme is responsible for most, if not all, of the malonyl-CoA synthetase activity in the mitochondria of these cells. In conclusion, unlike fungi, which have an intramitochondrial acetyl-CoA carboxylase, animals require an alternative source of mitochondrial malonyl-CoA; the mitochondrial ACSF3 enzyme is capable of filling this role by utilizing free malonic acid as substrate.     

De novo synthesis and desaturation of fatty acids at the mitochondrial acyl-carrier protein, a subunit of NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase in Neurospora crassa.

We have cultivated the cel mutant of Neurospora crassa defective in cytosolic fatty acid synthesis with [2-14C]malonate and found radioactivity covalently attached to the mitochondrial acyl-carrier protein (ACP), a subunit of the respiratory chain NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase. We purified the ACP by reverse-phase HPLC: the bound acyl groups were trans-esterified to methylesters and analyzed by gas chromatography. The saturated C6 to C18 fatty acids and oleic acid were detected. De novo synthesis and desaturation of fatty acids at the ACP subunit of NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase and use of the products of this mitochondrial synthetic pathway for cardiolipin synthesis is discussed.     

The human FA2H gene encodes a fatty acid 2-hydroxylase

2-Hydroxysphingolipids are a subset of sphingolipids containing 2-hydroxy fatty acids. The 2-hydroxylation occurs during de novo ceramide synthesis and is catalyzed by fatty acid 2-hydroxylase (also known as fatty acid alpha-hydroxylase). In mammals, 2-hydroxysphingolipids are present abundantly in brain because the major myelin lipids galactosylceramides and sulfatides contain 2-hydroxy fatty acids. Here we report identification and characterization of a human gene that encodes a fatty acid 2-hydroxylase. Data base searches revealed a human homologue of the yeast ceramide 2-hydroxylase gene (FAH1), which we named FA2H. The FA2H gene encodes a 372-amino acid protein with 36% identity and 46% similarity to yeast Fah1p. The amino acid sequence indicates that FA2H protein contains an N-terminal cytochrome b5 domain and four potential transmembrane domains. FA2H also contains the iron-binding histidine motif conserved among membrane-bound desaturases/hydroxylases. COS7 cells expressing human FA2H contained 3-20-fold higher levels of 2-hydroxyceramides (C16, C18, C24, and C24:1) and 2-hydroxy fatty acids compared with control cells. Microsomal fractions prepared from transfected COS7 cells showed tetracosanoic acid 2-hydroxylase activities in an NADPH- and NADPH: cytochrome P-450 reductase-dependent manner. FA2H lacking the N-terminal cytochrome b5 domain had little activity, indicating that this domain is a functional component of this enzyme. Northern blot analysis showed that the FA2H gene is highly expressed in brain and colon tissues. These results demonstrate that the human FA2H gene encodes a fatty acid 2-hydroxylase. FA2H is likely involved in the formation of myelin 2-hydroxy galactosylceramides and -sulfatides.     

Fatty acid chain elongation synthesis in eel (Anguilla anguilla) liver mitochondria

The properties of fatty acid chain elongation synthesis have been investigated in liver mitochondria of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla). The incorporation of [1-(14)C]acetyl-CoA into fatty acids shows a specific activity of 0.43+/-0.05 nmol/min x mg protein (n=6), which is more than twice higher than that previously reported in rat liver mitochondria. Label incorporation into fatty acids was, in mitochondria disrupted by freezing and thawing, much higher than in intact organelles thus suggesting a probable localization of this pathway inside mitochondria. Only a negligible acetyl-CoA incorporation into fatty acids occurs in the absence of ATP, Mg2+ or reduced pyridine nucleotides; NADH alone seems to be as effective as NADH + NADPH as a hydrogen donor for the reducing steps. CoASH, without effect up to 10 microM, showed a strong inhibition at higher concentrations. From the ratio of total radioactivity and radioactivity in carboxyl carbon it can be inferred that in eel-liver mitochondria only chain elongation of preexisting fatty acids occurs. A significant fatty acid chain elongation activity is also present when, instead of acetyl-CoA, [2-(14)C]malonyl-CoA is used as a carbon unit donor. Moreover, the synthesized fatty acids were actively incorporated into phopholipids, mainly phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine and sphyngomyelin.     

Proton re-uptake partitioning between uncoupling protein and ATP synthase during benzohydroxamic acid-resistant state 3 respiration in tomato fruit mitochondria

The yield of oxidative phosphorylation in isolated tomato fruit mitochondria depleted of free fatty acids remains constant when respiratory rates are decreased by a factor of 3 by the addition of n-butyl malonate. This constancy makes the determination of the contribution of the linoleic acid-induced energy-dissipating pathway by the ADP/O method possible. No decrease in membrane potential is observed in state 3 respiration with increasing concentration of n-butyl malonate, indicating that the rate of ATP synthesis is steeply dependent on membrane potential. Linoleic acid decreases the yield of oxidative phosphorylation in a concentration-dependent manner by a pure protonophoric process like that in the presence of FCCP. ADP/O measurements allow calculation of the part of respiration leading to ATP synthesis and the part of respiration sustained by the dissipative H(+) re-uptake induced by linoleic acid. Respiration sustained by this energy-dissipating process remains constant at a given LA concentration until more than 50% inhibition of state 3 respiration by n-butyl malonate is achieved. The energy dissipative contribution to oxygen consumption is proposed to be equal to the protonophoric activity of plant uncoupling protein divided by the intrinsic H(+)/O of the cytochrome pathway. It increases with linoleic acid concentration, taking place at the expense of ADP phosphorylation without an increase in the respiration.     

Rat long chain acyl-CoA synthetase 5 increases fatty acid uptake and partitioning to cellular triacylglycerol in McArdle-RH7777 cells

Long chain acyl-CoA synthetase (ACSL) catalyzes the initial step in long chain fatty acid metabolism. Of the five mammalian ACSL isoforms cloned and characterized, ACSL5 is the only isoform found to be located, in part, on mitochondria and thus was hypothesized to be involved in fatty acid oxidation. To elucidate the specific roles of ACSL5 in fatty acid metabolism, we used adenoviral-mediated overexpression of ACSL5 (Ad-ACSL5) in rat hepatoma McArdle-RH7777 cells. Confocal microscopy revealed that Ad-ACSL5 colocalized to both mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. When compared with cells infected with Ad-GFP, Ad-ACSL5-infected cells at 24 h after infection had 2-fold higher acyl-CoA synthetase activities and 30% higher rates of fatty acid uptake when incubated with 500 microM [1-(14)C]oleic acid. Metabolism of [1-(14)C]oleic acid to cellular triacylglycerol (TAG) increased 42% in Ad-ACSL5-infected cells, but when compared with control cells, metabolism to acid-soluble metabolites, phospholipids, and medium TAG did not differ substantially. The incorporation of [1-(14)C]oleate and [1,2,3-(3)H]glycerol into TAG was similar in Ad-ACSL5-infected cells, thus indicating that Ad-ACSL5 increased TAG synthesis through both de novo and reacylation pathways. However, [1-(14)C]acetic acid incorporation into cellular lipids showed that, when compared with control cells, Ad-ACSL5-infected cells did not increase the metabolism of fatty acids that were derived from de novo synthesis. These results suggest that uptake of fatty acids into cells is regulated by metabolism and that overexpressed ACSL5 partitions exogenously derived fatty acids toward TAG synthesis and storage.     

Metabolism of 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid by Caco-2 cells

Monolayers of Caco-2 cells, a human enterocyte cell line, were incubated with [1-14C]15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (15-HETE), a lipid mediator of inflammation, and [1-14C]arachidonic acid. Both fatty acids were taken up readily and metabolized by Caco-2 cells. [1-14C]Arachidonic acid was directly esterified in cellular phospholipids and, to a lesser extent, in triglycerides. When [1-14C]15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid was incubated with Caco-2 cells, about 10% was directly esterified into cellular lipids but most (55%) was beta-oxidized to ketone bodies, CO2, and acetate, with very little accumulation of shorter carbon chain products of partial beta-oxidation. The radiolabeled acetate generated from beta-oxidation of [1-14C]15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid was incorporated into the synthesis of new fatty acids, primarily [14C]palmitate, which in turn was esterified into cellular phospholipids, with lesser amounts in triglycerides. Caco-2 cells were also incubated with [5,6,8,9,11,12,14,15-3H]15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid; most of the radiolabel was recovered either in ketone bodies or in [3H]palmitate esterified in phospholipids and triglycerides, demonstrating that most of the [3H]15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid underwent several cycles of beta-oxidation. The binding of both 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid and arachidonic acid to hepatic fatty acid binding protein, the only fatty acid binding protein in Caco-2 cells, was measured. The Kd (6.0 microM) for 15-HETE was three-fold higher than that for arachidonate (2.1 microM).     

The physiological role of oxygen-sensitive pyruvate dehydrogenase in mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis in Euglena gracilis

In Euglena gracilis a malonyl-CoA-independent fatty acid-synthetic system, in which fatty acids are synthesized directly from acetyl-CoA as both primer and C2 donor, occurs in mitochondria, and the system contributes to the wax ester fermentation. The activity of fatty acid synthesis in the mitochondrial system was enhanced about six times when an artificial acetyl-CoA-regenerating system was present, indicating that the fatty acid-synthetic activity is controlled by the ratio of acetyl-CoA against CoA. When fatty acids were synthesized using pyruvate instead of acetyl-CoA as substrate, a high activity, about 30 times higher than that from acetyl-CoA, was found under anaerobic conditions (below 10(-5) M oxygen), while in aerobiosis fatty acids were not synthesized at all. CoA, NADH, and NADP+ were required as cofactors for fatty acid synthesis from pyruvate. It was indicated that high activity of fatty acid synthesis from pyruvate due to the high ratio of acetyl-CoA against CoA was maintained by the action of the oxygen-sensitive pyruvate dehydrogenase found in Euglena mitochondria. When [2-14C]pyruvate was fed into intact mitochondria under anaerobic conditions, radioactive fatty acids were formed in the presence of malate, which provided reducing power for the matrix.     

Differential translational effects of myristic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid on 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase from Reuber H35 hepatoma cells

The mechanisms by which saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids may exert their effects on levels of blood cholesterol and human atherosclerosis have not been fully established. In this work, we studied the translational effects of myristic (14:0) and eicosapentaenoic (20:5) acids on 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase from Reuber H35 hepatoma cells. This enzyme is an intrinsic membrane, 96-kDa protein whose proteolysis releases an enzymatically active, 52- to 56-kDa, soluble fragment. We optimized an immunoblot procedure for quantifying small amounts of both the native and the soluble forms of HMG-CoA reductase from Reuber H35 hepatoma cells. We demonstrated that the upregulation of HMG-CoA reductase by a acid is due to an increase of the HMG-CoA reductase protein; therefore, protein synthesis would be required for the increase of HMG-CoA reductase activity caused by this fatty acid. In contrast, the downregulation of HMG-CoA reductase caused by eicosapentaenoic acid is not due to decreased protein synthesis, since similar levels of protein were found in the presence and absence of this fatty acid. Results obtained with cycloheximide as a protein-synthesis inhibitor confirm these findings.     

Regulation of fatty acid synthesis during the cessation of phospholipid biosynthesis in Escherichia coli.

In 1975, Cronan et al. (J. Biol. Chem. 250:5835-5840) reported that free fatty acids accumulated during glycerol starvation of an Escherichia coli glycerol auxotroph. On the basis of labeling experiments showing significant incorporation of [14C]acetate into the fatty acid fraction of glycerol-starved cells, these authors concluded that fatty acid synthesis proceeded normally in the absence of phospholipid synthesis. Since these findings might have been due to an increase in the intracellular specific activity of the [1-14C]acetyl coenzyme A pool of the glycerol-starved cells, we reexamined the effect of glycerol starvation on fatty acid synthesis. We found that (i) the incorporation of 3H2O and/or [2,3-14C]succinate into the fatty acid fraction of glycerol auxotrophs is severely reduced during starvation, (ii) the incorporation of [1-14C]acetate into the lipid fraction of an acetate-requiring glycerol auxotroph is inhibited by 95% during glycerol starvation, and (iii) the accumulation of fatty acids, as measured by microtitration, in glycerol-starved cells is less than 10% that of glycerol-supplemented cells. These results indicate that fatty acid synthesis is inhibited in the absence of phospholipid synthesis of E. coli.     

Mitochondrial lipoic acid scavenging is essential for Plasmodium berghei liver stage development

Lipoic acid is an essential cofactor for enzymes that participate in key metabolic pathways in most organisms. While in mammalian cells lipoylated proteins reside exclusively in the mitochondria, apicomplexan parasites of the genus Plasmodium harbour two independent lipoylation pathways in the mitochondrion and the apicoplast, a second organelle of endosymbiotic origin. Protein lipoylation in the apicoplast relies on de novo lipoic acid synthesis while lipoylation of proteins in the mitochondrion depends on scavenging of lipoic acid from the host cell. Here, we analyse the impact of lipoic acid scavenging on the development of Plasmodium berghei liver stage parasites. Treatment of P. berghei-infected HepG2 cells with the lipoic acid analogue 8-bromo-octanoic acid (8-BOA) abolished lipoylation of mitochondrial enzyme complexes in the parasite while lipoylation of apicoplast proteins was not affected. Parasite growth as well as the ability of the parasites to successfully complete liver stage development by merosome formation were severely impaired but not completely blocked by 8-BOA. Liver stage parasites were most sensitive to 8-BOA treatment during schizogony, the phase of development when the parasite grows and undergoes extensive nuclear division to form a multinucleated syncytium. Live cell imaging as well as immunofluorescence analysis and electronmicroscopy studies revealed a close association of both host cell and parasite mitochondria with the parasitophorous vacuole membrane suggesting that host cell mitochondria might be involved in lipoic acid uptake by the parasite from the host cell.     

Lipoic acid synthesis: a new family of octanoyltransferases generally annotated as lipoate protein ligases

Bacillus subtilis lacks a recognizable homologue of the LipB octanoyltransferase, an enzyme essential for lipoic acid synthesis in Escherichia coli. LipB transfers the octanoyl moiety from octanoyl-acyl carrier protein to the lipoyl domains of the 2-oxoacid dehydrogenases via a thioester-linked octanoyl-LipB intermediate. The octanoylated dehydrogenase is then converted to the enzymatically active lipoylated species by insertion of two sulfur atoms into the octanoyl moiety by the S-adenosyl-l-methionine radical enzyme, LipA (lipoate synthase). B. subtilis synthesizes lipoic acid and contains a LipA homologue that is fully functional in E. coli. Therefore, the lack of a LipB homologue presented the puzzle of how B. subtilis synthesizes the LipA substrate. We report that B. subtilis encodes an octanoyltransferase that has virtually no sequence resemblance to E. coli LipB but instead has a sequence that resembles that of the E. coli lipoate ligase, LplA. On the basis of this resemblance, these genes have generally been annotated as encoding a lipoate ligase, an enzyme that in E. coli scavenges lipoic acid from the environment but plays no role in de novo synthesis. We have named the B. subtilis octanoyltransferase LipM and find that, like LipB, the LipM reaction proceeds through a thioester-linked acyl enzyme intermediate. The LipM active site nucleophile was identified as C150 by the finding that this thiol becomes modified when LipM is expressed in E. coli. The level of the octanoyl-LipM intermediate can be significantly decreased by blocking fatty acid synthesis during LipM expression, and C150 was confirmed as an essential active site residue by site-directed mutagenesis. LipM homologues seem the sole type of octanoyltransferase present in the firmicutes and are also present in the cyanobacteria. LipM type octanoyltransferases represent a new clade of the PF03099 protein family, suggesting that octanoyl transfer activity has evolved at least twice within this superfamily.     

Defects in mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis result in failure of multiple aspects of mitochondrial biogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis (mtFAS) shares acetyl‐CoA with the Krebs cycle as a common substrate and is required for the production of octanoic acid (C8) precursors of lipoic acid (LA) in mitochondria. MtFAS is a conserved pathway essential for respiration. In a genetic screen in Saccharomyces cerevisiae designed to further elucidate the physiological role of mtFAS, we isolated mutants with defects in mitochondrial post‐translational gene expression processes, indicating a novel link to mitochondrial gene expression and respiratory chain biogenesis. In our ensuing analysis, we show that mtFAS, but not lipoylation per se, is required for respiratory competence. We demonstrate that mtFAS is required for mRNA splicing, mitochondrial translation and respiratory complex assembly, and provide evidence that not LA per se, but fatty acids longer than C8 play a role in these processes. We also show that mtFAS‐ and LA‐deficient strains suffer from a mild haem deficiency that may contribute to the respiratory complex assembly defect. Based on our data and previously published information, we propose a model implicating mtFAS as a sensor for mitochondrial acetyl‐CoA availability and a co‐ordinator of nuclear and mitochondrial gene expression by adapting the mitochondrial compartment to changes in the metabolic status of the cell.     

Mode of action of lipoic acid in diabetes

Metabolic aberrations in diabetes such as hyperglycemia, ketonemia, ketonuria, reduced glycogen in tissues and reduced rates of fatty acid synthesis in the liver are corrected by the administration of lipoic acid. Dithiol octanoic acid is formed from lipoic acid by reduction and substitutes for Coenzyme A in several enzymatic reactions such as pyruvate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, acetyl Coenzyme A carboxylase, fatty acid synthetase, and triglyceride and phospholipid biosynthesis; but not in the oxidation of fatty acids because of the slow rates of thiolysis of β-keto acyl dithioloctanoic acid. The overall effect of these changes in the key enzymic activities is seen in the increased rates of oxidation of glucose and a reduction in fatty acid oxidation in diabetes following lipoic acid administration.     

Fatty acid composition and lipid peroxidation induced by ascorbate-Fe2+ in different organs of goose (Anser anser)

Many reports have demonstrated that birds show a low degree of fatty acid unsaturation and lipid peroxidation compared with mammals of similar body size. The aim of the present study was to examine fatty acid profiles, non-enzymatic lipid peroxidation and vitamin E levels of mitochondria and microsomes obtained from liver, heart and brain of goose (Anser anser). The unsaturated fatty acid content found in mitochondria and microsomes of all tissues examined was approximately 60% with a prevalence of C18:1 n9 + C18:2 n6 = 50%. The 20:4 n6 + C22:6 n3 content was significantly higher in brain organelles (approx. 16%) compared with mitochondria and microsomes of liver and heart (approx. 4%). Whereas these organelles were not affected when subjected to lipid peroxidation, brain mitochondria were highly affected, as indicated by the increase in chemiluminescence and a considerable decrease of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids. These changes were not observed during lipid peroxidation of brain microsomes. Vitamin E content was higher in liver and heart than in brain mitochondria (1.77 +/- 0.06 and 1.93 +/- 0.13 vs. 0.91 +/- 0.09 nmol/mg protein). The main conclusion of this paper is that a lower degree of unsaturation of fatty acids in liver and heart mitochondria and a higher vitamin E level than in brain mitochondria protect those tissues against lipid peroxidation.