The fish assemblage on a coralligenous shallow shelf off the Mediterranean coast of northern Israel

The fish assemblage on the shallow coralligenous shelf (16-30m depth) off Haifa, Israel was sampled using trammel nets throughout a period of 1 year. Complementary data were obtained via underwater censuses of fish on an artificial reef established later in the sampling area. Fortythree species of fish were sampled by trammel nets, 79% of which were observed also during the underwater censuses. Although fish of Red Sea origin constituted only 11.6% of the species composition in the net samples, they contributed 46.2% of the fish abundance and 40.6% of the biomass in these samples. This was supported by the finding that species of Red Sea origin contributed 64% of the abundance of large fish counted on the artificial reef. Siganus luridas, S. rivulatus and Sargocentron rubrum are the main contributors in number and biomass among fish of Red Sea origin. It is suggested that the biogenic rocky bottom of this area contains several components which are similar to biogenic habitats favoured by these benthic species in the Red Sea; this may explain the high abundance of these species in the studied area.     

Life history, ecology and parasite community structure in Soviet birds

The paper describes an investigation of parasite richness in relation to host life history and ecology using data from an extensive survey of helminth parasites (cestodes, trematodes and nematodes) in Soviet birds. Correlates of parasite richness (number of parasite species per host species) were sought among 13 life-history variables, 13 ecological variables and one non-biological variable (number of host individuals examined) across a sample of 158 species of host. A statistical method to control for the effects of phylogenetic association was adopted throughout. Parasite richness correlates positively with the number of hosts examined (sample size) in all three parasite groups. Positive correlations (after controlling for the effects of sample size) were also found between host body weight and parasite richness for trematodes and nematodes, but not for cestodes.
A number of ecological variables were associated with parasite richness. However, when the effects of sample size and body weight were controlled for, only a single significant correlation (an association between trematode richness and aquatic habitat) remained. Similarly, a number of significant correlates of parasite richness were found among the life-history variables examined. Though several of these were robust to the confounding effects of sample size, all could be explained by the co-variation between life-history traits and body weight among the host species under investigation.     

Geographic and within-population structure in variable resistance to parasite species and strains in a vertebrate host

Host resistance to parasites and parasite infectivity may be subject to significant genetically determined variation within species. However, relatively little is known of how this variability is structured in natural vertebrate populations and their macroparasites. A laboratory experiment on host susceptibility-parasite infectivity variation in a wildlife host-parasite system (subspecies of the anuran X. laevis and their polystome flatworms), including 33 pairwise allopatric and sympatric host-parasite combinations (three parasite geographical isolates x 11 host full-sibling families, n=600), revealed a complex pattern of infection success. Results amongst host sibships from different localities suggested that infection success was subject to a highly significant locality x parasite isolate interaction. Within localities, a highly significant sibship x isolate interaction also occurred in one of two groups of sibships examined. The existence of such interactions suggests a potential for frequency-dependent, Red Queen-like selection. Interaction between locality and isolate was partly due to higher infection levels in sympatric combinations, consistent with a general pattern of host-specific adaptation. However, some allopatric combinations produced unpredictably high infection levels, resulting in very asymmetrical cross-infectivity patterns (where the reciprocal cross-infections produced negligible infection). This phylogeographically structured host-parasite system may, therefore, sometimes generate local parasite strains with high infectivity to allopatric hosts. Secondary contact between populations could thus result in significant, and unequal, transfer of parasites.     

On the difference of the action between two parasitic wasps in the fluctuations of the host and parasite. (Preliminary)

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Contributions from the Entomological Laboratory, Kotyo University, No. 227.     

Ecophysiological traits associated with drought in Mediterranean tree seedlings: individual responses versus interspecific trends in eleven species

Species differ regarding their drought tolerance and individuals of a given species can modify their morphology and physiology in response to drought. However, since evolutionary and ecological selective pressures differ, individual and interspecific responses to drought might not match. We determined summer survival and a number of ecophysiological variables in two factorial experiments with seedlings of eleven tree species present in Mediterranean ecosystems, grown under slowly imposed water stress and control conditions. Plants experiencing drought exhibited reduced growth, low specific leaf area, chlorophyll content, and photosynthetic rate when compared to the controls, and species-specific drought tolerance was associated with an analogous set of trait values. However, while species with high leaf area ratio and shoot-root ratio exhibited greater drought tolerance, drought induced the reversed response within species. Contrary to expectations, water use efficiency was lower in drought-tolerant species and decreased in water-stressed individuals compared to the control plants. There was a distinctive phylogenetic signal in the functional grouping of species, with oaks, pines, and other genera being clearly different from each other in their drought tolerance and in their functional responses to drought. However, all relationships between ecophysiological variables and drought tolerance were significant after accounting for phylogenetic effects, with the exception of the relationship between drought tolerance and photochemical efficiency. Our results show that drought tolerance is not achieved by a single combination of trait values, and that even though evolutionary processes and individual responses tend to render similar results in terms of functional traits associated with drought, they do not necessarily match.     

Using phylogeny and functional traits for assessing community assembly along environmental gradients: A deterministic process driven by elevation

Community assembly processes is the primary focus of community ecology. Using phylogenetic‐based and functional trait‐based methods jointly to explore these processes along environmental gradients are useful ways to explain the change of assembly mechanisms under changing world. Our study combined these methods to test assembly processes in wide range gradients of elevation and other habitat environmental factors. We collected our data at 40 plots in Taibai Mountain, China, with more than 2,300 m altitude difference in study area and then measured traits and environmental factors. Variance partitioning was used to distinguish the main environment factors leading to phylogeny and traits change among 40 plots. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to colligate other environment factors. Community assembly patterns along environmental gradients based on phylogenetic and functional methods were studied for exploring assembly mechanisms. Phylogenetic signal was calculated for each community along environmental gradients in order to detect the variation of trait performance on phylogeny. Elevation showed a better explanatory power than other environment factors for phylogenetic and most traits’ variance. Phylogenetic and several functional structure clustered at high elevation while some conserved traits overdispersed. Convergent tendency which might be caused by filtering or competition along elevation was detected based on functional traits. Leaf dry matter content (LDMC) and leaf nitrogen content along PCA 1 axis showed conflicting patterns comparing to patterns showed on elevation. LDMC exhibited the strongest phylogenetic signal. Only the phylogenetic signal of maximum plant height showed explicable change along environmental gradients. Synthesis. Elevation is the best environment factors for predicting phylogeny and traits change. Plant's phylogenetic and some functional structures show environmental filtering in alpine region while it shows different assembly processes in middle‐ and low‐altitude region by different trait/phylogeny. The results highlight deterministic processes dominate community assembly in large‐scale environmental gradients. Performance of phylogeny and traits along gradients may be independent with each other. The novel method for calculating functional structure which we used in this study and the focus of phylogenetic signal change along gradients may provide more useful ways to detect community assembly mechanisms.     

Host-attacking behavior of a eulophid parasite,Kratochviliana sp., to the leaf mining host,Phytomyza ranunculi (Diptera: Agromyzidae) during its stay on the leaf

The present paper studies how the female parasite of Kratochviliana sp. visits and attacks its host larvae of Ranunculus leaf mining fly, P. ranunculi at a single leaf visit. The parasite visited its hosts at random on the leaf. The frequency of host visits was independent of the host density and the proportion of hosts survived from the parasite attack, in a leaf and its distribution was expressed as a single straight line. It almost always attacked living hosts at the first host visit after isolated from them for one day but with the rate of about 0.5 at the subsequent visits. In consequence, the relationships of the number of host attacks and killed hosts to the host density drew satulated curves in each. A model of host attack by this parasite at its single leaf visit was formulated by modifyingBakker et al.'s model (1972) basing upon these observations and the attack avoidance by the parasite to already attacked hosts previously reported.     

Geography and host specificity: two forces behind the genetic structure of the freshwater fish parasite Ligula intestinalis (Cestoda: Diphyllobothriidae)

Parasite species with global distributions and complex life cycles offer a rare opportunity to study alternative mechanisms of speciation and evolution in a single model. Here, genealogy and genetic structure, with respect to geography and fish host preference, have been analyzed for Ligula intestinalis, a tapeworm affecting freshwater fish. The data analyzed consisted of 109 tapeworms sampled from 13 fish host species in 18 different localities on a macrogeographic scale. Two mitochondrial genes, cytochrome oxidase subunit I and cytochrome B, and the nuclear sequence of intergenic transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) were used for the genetic reconstruction. Different evolutionary patterns were found at the local and at the global geographic scales. On a local scale, the flat genetic structure was mainly attributed to contiguous range expansion. Migrating birds are the most likely cause of the homogenisation of the whole population, preventing the creation of significant genetic barriers. By contrast, on a global scale, genetically distant and well-separated clusters are present in different geographic areas. Reproductive isolation was found even between clades living in sympatry and infecting the same definitive host, suggesting the existence of efficient biologically determined genetic barriers, and thus possibly separate species. Although the ITS2 sequences were found to display considerable intragenomic variability, their relationships were generally in good agreement with the topology derived from mitochondrial genes.     

南海西北部陆架区鱼类的种类组成与群落格局

根据2006-2007年在南海西北部陆架区海域进行的4航次底拖网调查数据,对该海域鱼类的种类组成和群落格局进行分析.调查共采获鱼类262种,隶属于20目102科.以冬季出现种类数最多,为166种;夏季和秋季次之,分别为161种和155种;春季最少,为135种.运用聚类分析和非度量多维标度(NMDS)方法分析了南海西北部陆架区鱼类群落结构的空间分布.研究表明,该海域鱼类可划分为5个群落,分别为粤西沿岸群落(群落Ⅰ)、海南岛东南沿岸群落(群落Ⅱ)、海南岛东部深海群落(群落Ⅲ)、过渡群落(群落Ⅳ)和混合群落(群落Ⅴ).ANOSIM检验表明,各群落间鱼类组成的差异极为显著(R=0.847-0.939,P＜0.001).鱼类群落格局的变化与海流和水深关系密切,有较明显的沿水深梯度分布的规律.咸淡水鱼类在雷州半岛东部的冷涡区域,形成群落Ⅰ;南海暖流控制区域内的深海鱼类,形成群落Ⅲ;在南海暖流最为强劲的冬季,研究区域内大部分鱼类集结为混合性群落Ⅴ;琼东南沿岸的上升流区内形成群落Ⅱ;沿岸流强劲的夏、秋季,在沿岸流和上升流交汇处,形成过渡性群落Ⅳ.     

New insights into the mitochondrial phylogeny of the whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in the Mediterranean Basin

The whitefly Bemisia tabaci is vector of plant infecting viruses and it is considered as one of the most important agricultural pests around the Mediterranean basin. At present, five biotypes of B. tabaci have been reported in the Mediterranean Basin: B, Q, S, T and M. To establish the phylogeographic relationship of these Mediterranean biotypes with others, 54 samples collected in Europe and Africa were analysed by sequencing the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene (mtCOI). The phylogeny showed that Spanish samples corresponding to the biotype S were related to the haplotype Uganda 2 of the African clade, associated with recent epidemic upsurges of cassava mosaic virus (CMD) in that country. This phylogeographic relationship gave support to a distinct subgroup revealed within the African clade. Bemisia tabaci collected from Euphorbia plants in Italy (biotype T) formed one of the three distinct subgroups existing within the Southeast/Far East Asian clade, while samples from Turkey (biotype M) clustered together with reference mitochondrial sequences from whiteflies from Pakistan and Thailand. Recent reports indicate that Bemisia populations corresponding to the biotypes S and T are distributed in areas larger than those initially delimited. Other results indicated that samples collected in Sudan grouped within the Mediterranean–North Africa clade together with reference sequences of the biotype Q corresponding to insects collected in Spain and Morocco. Mitochondrial haplotypes of B. tabaci samples collected on sweet potato in Ghana clustered with reference sequences of samples from Cameroon corresponding to one of the five Sub-Saharan subgroups already described in the African clade. These data extends the phylogenetic information of the B. tabaci species complex and present new questions to be investigated.     

A nested parasite species subset pattern in tropical fish: host as major determinant of parasite infracommunity structure

The number of monogenean gill parasite species associated with fish hosts of different sizes is evaluated for 35 host individuals of the West African cyprinid Labeo coubie. The length of host individuals explains 86% of the total variation in monogenean species richness among individuals. Larger hosts harbour more species than smaller ones. The existence of a hierarchical association of parasite species in individuals of L. coubie is demonstrated. Monogenean infracommunities on larger fish hosts consist of all species found on smaller hosts plus those restricted to the larger size categories, suggesting some degree of compositional persistence among host individuals. The findings provide strong support for an interpretation of the relationship between monogenean parasite species richness and host body size in terms of a nested species subset pattern, thus providing a new record of repetitive structure and predictability for parasite infracommunities of hosts.After 15/01/1995, ORSTOM, BP 165 97323 Cayenne cedex Guyane France     

Population genetics ofAnisakis simplex (Nematoda: Ascaridoidea) in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and their use as biological indicators of host stocks

Synopsis The extent to which data concerning the population genetics of a parasite — namely larvalAnisakis simplex, may be used as an auxilliary source of information on various aspects of the marine migrations of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is examined.Frequencies of the various acid phosphatase alleles could not be used in distinguishing between or estimating the proportions of North American and European salmon occurring off west Greenland. The genetic structure of larvae from salmon taken in Scotland was different from that taken in Ireland and England confirming an earlier conclusion that the feeding habits of the fish from Scotland were significantly different. In the western Atlantic, salmon from northern Newfoundland and also salmon from the Bay of Fundy had apparently ingested different populations (or different proportions of the same nematode population) than salmon from Miramachi and Chaleur Bay areas. Samples from northern Newfoundland and Labrador were also genetically different. These findings are discussed in relation to the available literature concerning salmon migrations, explanations are put forward and areas of future research suggested.     

Cracking the case: Seed traits and phylogeny predict time to germination in prairie restoration species

Traits are important for understanding how plant communities assemble and function, providing a common currency for studying ecological processes across species, locations, and habitat types. However, the majority of studies relating species traits to community assembly rely upon vegetative traits of mature plants. Seed traits, which are understudied relative to whole‐plant traits, are key to understanding assembly of plant communities. This is particularly true for restored communities, which are typically started de novo from seed, making seed germination a critical first step in community assembly and an early filter for plant establishment. We experimentally tested the effects of seed traits (mass, shape, and embryo to seed size ratio) and phylogeny on germination response in 32 species commonly used in prairie grassland restoration in the Midwestern USA, analyzing data using time‐to‐event (survival) analysis. As germination is also influenced by seed dormancy, and dormancy break treatments are commonly employed in restoration, we also tested the effects of two pretreatments (cold stratification and gibberellic acid application) on time to germination. Seed traits, phylogeny, and seed pretreatments all affected time to germination. Of all traits tested, variables related to seed shape (height and shape variance) best predicted germination response, with high‐variance (i.e., pointier and narrower) seeds germinating faster. Phylogenetic position (the location of species on the phylogenetic tree relative to other tested species) was also an important predictor of germination response, that is, closely related species showed similar patterns in time to germination. This was true despite the fact that all measured seed traits showed phylogenetic signal, therefore phylogeny provided residual information that was not already captured by measured seed traits. Seed traits, phylogenetic position, and germination pretreatments were important predictors of germination response for a suite of species commonly used in grassland restoration. Shape traits were especially important, while mass, often the only seed trait used in studies of community assembly, was not a strong predictor of germination timing. These findings illustrate the ecological importance of seed traits that are rarely incorporated into functional studies of plant communities. This information can also be used to advance restoration practice by guiding restoration planning and seed mix design.     

The effects of some soil properties (soil nitrogen forms and moisture) on community structure in Mediterranean plant communities in the Black Sea region

Mediterranean ecosystems comprise the second biodiversity hotspot area after tropical rain forests and will be most affected by global climate change. Therefore, it is important to understand community dynamics for effective conservation in this region. We investigated the relationships between soil moisture, nitrogen forms and community structuring in Quercus ilexL., Erica arborea L. and Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) Spach communities, representing different successional stages, distributed as Mediterranean enclaves on the Sinop Peninsula (Turkey). The soil moisture, ammonium, nitrate and nitrite content were measured seasonally. Differences in these abiotic parameters within and between communities over seasons were tested. Previously collected biotic data were then used to analyze the relationship between soil parameters and community structure. Significant differences in soil parameters within and between seasons were found within and between communities. Our results show that there are different relationships between soil moisture, nitrogen forms and community structure in Mediterranean plant communities representing different successional stages. Differentiation in vegetation structure during succession cause changes especially in the water and nitrate content of the soil, and these changes in turn affect the continuity of community structure in Mediterranean plant communities.     

喀斯特退化天坑不同坡向植物群落系统发育与功能性状结构

喀斯特退化天坑地下森林主要分布在不同坡向的倒石坡上,探究环境过滤、竞争排斥和随机过程在天坑地下森林群落构建中的作用,有助于揭示天坑物种避难所价值,为天坑植物多样性的保护及坑外地表生态恢复提供科学的参考。以云南沾益深陷塘退化天坑为例,综合运用功能性状生态学和系统发育方法,研究不同坡向植物群落的土壤环境特征、功能性状变异、系统发育信号及系统发育多样性。研究表明：（1）不同坡向土壤环境差异较大,相对于南坡和北坡而言,东坡的土壤环境变异程度最大。（2）各坡向具有不同的优势种群,其中壳斗科植物种群多度较大,在北坡和东坡的黄背栎（Quercus pannosa）种群数量较大,在南坡则是青冈（Cyclobalanopsis glauca）多度最大。各优势物种功能性状在不同坡向存在差异,整体上变异程度中等,但南坡优势物种变异程度最大。（3）叶宽、长宽比、叶厚度、比叶面积具有较强且显著的系统发育信号（K>1,P<0.05）,性状进化过程中受遗传因素影响较大;而叶长、叶面积、叶干重、叶干物质含量、最大树高系统发育信号弱（K<1）,性状进化过程中受生境因素影响较大。（4）各坡向植物群落构建过程由生态位理论的环境过滤和竞争排斥作用主导,坡向从北坡-东坡-南坡的转变过程中,植物群落构建中环境过滤作用逐渐减小,竞争排斥作用逐渐增大。北坡可能较长时间内都是以旱生型植物为主要建群种,而南坡则可能最终演替成亚热带湿润气候型的顶极群落。     

Demersal fish parasite fauna around the South Shetland Islands: high species richness and low host specificity in deep Antarctic waters

A total of nine Antarctic fish species belonging to five families were examined for their endohelminth parasite fauna. The fishes Parachaenichthys charcoti (Bathydraconidae), Chaenocephalus aceratus (Channichtyidae), Paradiplospinus gracilis (Gempylidae), Muraenolepis microps (Muraenolepididae), Gobionotothen gibberifrons, Lepidonotothen larseni, L. nudifrons, L. squamifrons, and Trematomus eulepidopus (Nototheniidae) were caught between 80 and 608 m trawling depth off the Antarctic Peninsula (Elephant Island, King George Island) in 1996. Nineteen different parasites species comprising five Digenea, two Cestoda, four Nematoda, and eight Acanthocephala were found. Pseudophyllidean cestodes, the nematodes Contracaecum radiatum and C. osculatum as well as the acanthocephalan Corynosoma bullosum were the most common, infesting eight of the fish species studied with prevalences reaching 100%. Pseudoterranova decipiens s.l. was the only parasite that was isolated from all studied fish species; however, at a lower intensity. The observed parasite host specificity was low, and the species richness in a single fish ranged from one to eleven in a C. aceratus. This icefish and the moray cod M. microps were the most heavily infested fish, harbouring many adult and larval parasitic stages. The benthodemersal P. gracilis had only two larval parasite species, while the nototheniids had very similar parasite communities, harbouring a total of 8–14 species. Larval mammalian parasites were found to utilize fish, especially the nototheniids and channichthyids, as a common transmission route into their final hosts. The fish parasites parallel explored different benthic host systems to reach the most suitable host. In contrast to the coast and continental shelf, the meso/bathypelagiac zone appears to be species poor and is inhabited by few larval forms. The fish parasite fauna off the South Shetland Islands can be characterized by generalistic parasites that distribute within Antarctic waters according to the feeding ecology and depth range of their teleost hosts, not only horizontally but also extending vertically into the deep sea.     

Prevalence of coccidia parasites (Protozoa) in red squirrels ( Sciurus vulgaris): effects of host phenotype and environmental factors

We investigated the relative importance of environmental factors versus host phenotype in determining parasite prevalence in Eurasian red squirrels ( Sciurus vulgaris). One hundred and forty-three fecal samples of 116 different squirrels collected in 2000 and 2001 from five study areas in the Italian Alps, were examined for intestinal protozoans. Two species of Eimeria were present with a medium to high prevalence in both years and in all areas, while two other species were rare, occurring only in some areas and not in all years. Cryptosporidium parvum had a high prevalence in the two study areas of the Western Alps, while in the three areas of the Central Alps it was recorded only once. The prevalence of Eimeria sciurorum and C. parvum fluctuated in parallel with squirrel density, suggesting a possible correlation between the presence of these protozoans and host density. A gender effect on E. sciurorum prevalence at low density could be explained by different space use patterns and social organization of males and females. C. parvum occurred more frequently in young squirrels, suggesting an acquired immunity in adults, but age-related susceptibility was not found for eimerian species. The coccidian community was more similar within than between regions, and study area and year were key parameters in predicting coccidia infection. There was no evidence of competition between coccidian species, but one positive interaction between E. sciurorum and E. andrewsi was observed. Our results suggest that the effects of geographic region, area features, and year effects probably related to fluctuations in host population density, were more important than individual phenotypic host characteristics in structuring the coccidian assemblage and determining levels of parasite prevalence in red squirrel populations.     

Testing vicariance: melanopsid snails and Neogene tectonics in the Western Mediterranean

Abstract. Vicariance on a microplate dispersed by the formation of the Western Mediterranean is the probable origin of Melanopsis etrusca Villa in Brot, the only melanopsid (Gastopoda: Melanopsidae) living in the Italian Peninsula. It is distantly related to extant melanopsids in Iberia and Morocco, and is restricted to thermal springs in the Maremma of southern Tuscany. This area was an island throughout the Miocene, inferred to have become detached geographically from the Corso—Sardinian block. Alternative explanations conflict with geological, paleontological, ecological and systematic evidence. In the geologically young Italian Peninsula fossil freshwater melanopsids are known only from Lower Pleistocene sites located around the area occupied by living populations. Their similarity to extant specimens supports the hypothesis that they represent the same lineage, having expanded its range during a brief, favourable period. Introduction of M. etrusca by humans, birds or wind is most improbable given its distinctness, similarity to local fossils, and inability for passive dispersal. Long-distance dispersal along brackish lagoons during the late Messinian conflicts with the inferred inability of melanopsids living there to colonize freshwater habitats. Indeed, there are ecological, phylogenetic and geological reasons against invoking the Messinian salinity crisis in order to explain the distribution of most taxa. Other freshwater taxa show distribution patterns similar to that of living and fossil melanopsids. However, congruent area cladograms or generalized tracks may not constitute reliable evaluators of biogeographical hypotheses. The detection of vicariance, as that of any other cause, requires robust reconstructions of the past. By pointing at areas of endemism that deserve urgent action, biogeography can provide a contribution to conservation.     

Plant community responses to nitrogen addition and increased precipitation: the importance of water availability and species traits

Global nitrogen (N) enrichment and changing precipitation regimes are likely to alter plant community structure and composition, with consequent influences on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Responses of plant community structure and composition to N addition and increased precipitation were examined in a temperate steppe in northern China. Increased precipitation and N addition stimulated and suppressed community species richness, respectively, across 6 years (2005–2010) of the manipulative experiment. N addition and increased precipitation significantly altered plant community structure and composition at functional groups levels. The significant relationship between species richness and soil moisture (SM) suggests that plant community structure is mediated by water under changing environmental conditions. In addition, plant height played an important role in affecting the responses of plant communities to N addition, and the effects of increased precipitation on plant community were dependent on species rooting depth. Our results highlight the importance and complexity of both abiotic (SM) and biotic factors (species traits) in structuring plant community under changing environmental scenarios. These findings indicate that knowledge of species traits can contribute to mechanistic understanding and projection of vegetation dynamics in response to future environmental change.