Nature of Cx30-containing channels in the adult mouse mammary gland

Oligonucleotide microarray analysis uniquely shows that several members of the connexin family of gap junction proteins are expressed by the epithelium during mouse mammary gland development. Connexin 26 (Cx26) is present throughout pregnancy and lactation, is then undetectable shortly after weaning, but reappears during involution. Additionally, Cx30 is abundant in late-pregnant and early lactating gland epithelium. From mid-pregnancy into early lactation, Cx26 and Cx30 co-localize in junctional plaques between epithelial cells, forming hemichannels of mixed connexin content. Microarray analysis also shows Cx32 is developmentally restricted to parturition, suggesting that specific modification of gap junction channel composition and/or intercellular communication pathways occurs at parturition. Specifically, heteromeric channels of all pairwise combinations are formed when these connexins are expressed within the same cells. Of these hemichannels, Cx26/Cx32 pores are increasingly sensitive to closure by taurine (an osmolyte implicated in milk protein synthesis) with increasing Cx26 content. In contrast, physiological taurine concentrations have no effect on Cx26/Cx30 and Cx30/Cx32 channel activity. Such changes in connexin expression and channel composition and their chemical modulation are discussed in relation to the various stages of mammary gland development in the adult mouse. This work was supported by grants GM36044 and GM61406 from the NIH to A.L. Harris and by generous funding from Breakthrough Breast Cancer Research to B. Gusterson.     

Mammary Gland Specific Knockdown of the Physiological Surge in Cx26 during Lactation Retains Normal Mammary Gland Development and Function

Connexin26 (Cx26) is the major Cx protein expressed in the human mammary gland and is up-regulated during pregnancy while remaining elevated throughout lactation. It is currently unknown if patients with loss-of-function Cx26 mutations that result in hearing loss and skin diseases have a greater susceptibility to impaired breast development. To investigate if Cx26 plays a critical role in mammary gland development and differentiation, a novel Cx26 conditional knockout mouse model was generated by crossing Cx26^fl/fl mice with mice expressing Cre under the β-Lactoglobulin promoter. Conditional knockdown of Cx26 from the mammary gland resulted in a dramatic reduction in detectable gap junction plaques confirmed by a significant ∼65-70% reduction in Cx26 mRNA and protein throughout parturition and lactation. Interestingly, this reduction was accompanied by a decrease in mammary gland Cx30 gap junction plaques at parturition, while no change was observed for Cx32 or Cx43. Whole mount, histological and immunofluorescent assessment of breast tissue revealed comparatively normal lobuloalveolar development following pregnancy in the conditionally knockdown mice compared to control mice. In addition, glands from genetically-modified mice were capable of producing milk proteins that were evident in the lumen of alveoli and ducts at similar levels as controls, suggesting normal gland function. Together, our results suggest that low levels of Cx26 expression throughout pregnancy and lactation, and not the physiological surge in Cx26, is sufficient for normal gland development and function.     

Leptin mRNA expression in the rat mammary gland at different activation stages

Leptin is expressed in various tissues, suggesting that this protein is effective not only at the central nervous system level, but also peripherically. Recent studies have shown leptin production by other tissues, including the placenta, stomach, and mammary tissues, but there is no information available concerning expression levels of leptin in the rat mammary gland at different activation stages. We used semi-quantitative RT-PCR to investigate leptin mRNA expression levels in the rat mammary gland at different activity stages. Rat mammary gland samples were collected from virgin females and on days 6, 12, 18 of pregnancy and of lactation (six rats per group). The expression levels of leptin mRNA were measured by semi-quantitative RT-PCR, with β-actin as an internal control. Leptin mRNA was highly expressed in virgin rat mammary glands (leptin(IOD)/β-actin(IOD) = 1.60). It decreased gradually during pregnancy, being lowest at 18 days of pregnancy, when the levels were significantly lower than in virgin mammary tissue. Leptin mRNA increased slightly during lactation, but the difference was not significant. By day 18 of lactation, expression levels of leptin mRNA reached the same values as in virgin mammary tissue (leptin(IOD)/β-actin(IOD) = 1.65). Based on these results, we suggest that leptin has an important regulation role in rat mammary gland activation.     

Developmental expression and assembly of connexins into homomeric and heteromeric gap junction hemichannels in the mouse mammary gland

During the development of the mammary gland, duct-lining epithelial cells progress through a program of expansive proliferation, followed by a terminal differentiation that allows for the biosynthesis and secretion of milk during lactation. The role of gap junction proteins, connexins, in the development and function of this secretory epithelium was investigated. Connexins, Cx26 and Cx32, were differentially expressed throughout pregnancy and lactation in alveolar cells. Cx26 poly-(A)(+) RNA and protein levels increased from early pregnancy, whereas Cx32 was detectable only during lactation. At this time, immunolocalization of connexins by confocal microscopy and immunogold labeling of high-pressure frozen freeze-substituted tissue showed that both connexins colocalized to the same junctional plaque. Analysis of gap junction hemichannels (connexons) isolated from lactating mammary gland plasma membranes by a rate-density centrifugation procedure, followed by immunoprecipitation and by size-exclusion chromatography, showed that Cx26 and Cx32 were organized as homomeric and heteromeric connexons. Structural diversity in the assembly of gap junction hemichannels demonstrated between pregnant and lactating mammary gland may account for differences in ionic and molecular signaling that may physiologically influence the onset and/or maintenance of the secretory phenotype of alveolar epithelial cells.     

Variation of the poly(A) size classes in the rat mammary gland during the lactation cycle

The sizes of the poly(A) tracts associated with rat mammary RNA were determined at several time points in the lactation cycle. The poly(A) tracts in the lactating gland displayed two predominant size class peaks at 80-85 and 45-47 residues. The 9S whey protein mRNA and the 15S casein mRNA purified from the 12 day lactating mammary gland both contained poly(A) tracts displaying a similar size distribution. The 45 residue tracts were a characteristic of lactation; they were not found at 8 days of pregnancy and only small amounts of these shorter poly(A) tracts were found in the 16 day pregnant gland. The poly(A) tracts of the involuted gland displayed the same size characteristics as those of late pregnancy. At all the developmental stages that were examined, the fraction of 45 residue poly(A) tracts was always proportional to the total poly(A) content of the mammary cells.     

Expression of human lysozyme mRNA in the mammary gland of transgenic mice

Owing to its inherent antimicrobial effect and positive charge, the expression of human lysozyme in bovine milk could be beneficial by altering the overal microbial level and the functional and physical properties of the milk. We have used transgenic mice as model systems to evaluate the expression of human lysozyme containing fusion gene constructs in the mammary gland. Expression of human lysozyme was targeted to the mammary gland by using the 5 promoter elements of either the bovine (line B mice) or _s1 (line H mice) casein genes coupled to the cDNA for human lysozyme. Expression of human lysozyme mRNA was not found in mammary tissue from any of line B mice. Tissues were analysed from six lines of H mice and two, H6 and H5, were found to express human lysozyme mRNA in the mammary gland at 42% and 116%, respectively, of the levels of the endogenous mouse whey acidic protein gene. At peak lactation, female mice homozygous for the H5 and H6 transgene have approximately twice the amount of mRNA encoding human lysozyme as hemizygous animals. Expression levels of human lysozyme mRNA in the mammary gland at time points representing late pregnancy, early, peak and late lactation corresponded to the profile of casein gene expression. Human lysozyme mRNA expression was not observed in transgenic males, virgin females or in the kidney, liver, spleen or brain of lactating females. A very low level of expression of human lysozyme mRNA was observed in the salivary gland of line H5.     

Characterization and regulation of the gene expression of amino acid transport system A (SNAT2) in rat mammary gland

Amino acid transport via system A plays an important role during lactation, promoting the uptake of small neutral amino acids, mainly alanine and glutamine. However, the regulation of gene expression of system A [sodium-coupled neutral amino acid transporter (SNAT)2] in mammary gland has not been studied. The aim of the present work was to understand the possible mechanisms of regulation of SNAT2 in the rat mammary gland. Incubation of gland explants in amino acid-free medium induced the expression of SNAT2, and this response was repressed by the presence of small neutral amino acids or by actinomycin D but not by large neutral or cationic amino acids. The half-life of SNAT2 mRNA was 67 min, indicating a rapid turnover. In addition, SNAT2 expression in the mammary gland was induced by forskolin and PMA, inducers of PKA and PKC signaling pathways, respectively. Inhibitors of PKA and PKC pathways partially prevented the upregulation of SNAT2 mRNA during adaptive regulation. Interestingly, SNAT2 mRNA was induced during pregnancy and to a lesser extent at peak lactation. beta-Estradiol stimulated the expression of SNAT2 in mammary gland explants; this stimulation was prevented by the estrogen receptor inhibitor ICI-182780. Our findings clearly demonstrated that the SNAT2 gene is regulated by multiple pathways, indicating that the expression of this amino acid transport system is tightly controlled due to its importance for the mammary gland during pregnancy and lactation to prepare the gland for the transport of amino acids during lactation.     

Localization and expression of BCAT during pregnancy and lactation in the rat mammary gland

During lactation, branched-chain aminotransferase (BCAT) gene expression increases in the mammary gland. To determine the cell type and whether this induction is present only during lactation, female rats were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups: pregnancy, lactation, or postweaning. Mammary gland BCAT activity during the first days of pregnancy was similar to that of virgin rats, increasing significantly from day 16 to the last day of pregnancy. Maximal BCAT activity occurred on day 12 of lactation. During postweaning, BCAT activity decreased rapidly to values close to those observed in virgin rats. Analyses by Western and Northern blot revealed that changes in enzyme activity were accompanied by parallel changes in the amount of enzyme and its mRNA. Immunohistochemical studies of the mammary gland showed a progressive increase in mitochondrial BCAT (mBCAT)-specific staining of the epithelial acinar cells during lactation, reaching high levels by day 12. Immunoreactivity decreased rapidly after weaning. There was a significant correlation between total BCAT activity and milk production. These results indicate that the pattern of mBCAT gene expression follows lactogenesis stages I and II and is restricted to the milk-producing epithelial acinar cells. Furthermore, BCAT activity is associated with milk production in the mammary gland during lactation.     

小鼠不同泌乳期乳腺脂肪合成相关基因的mRNA表达

为了研究小鼠不同泌乳期乳脂肪合成相关基因的表达规律,文章采用荧光定量PCR检测了小鼠乳腺中与脂肪合成和分泌相关20个基因的mRNA相对表达丰度和表达差异。结果表明,在乳腺中脂蛋白脂酶(LPL)、乙酰辅酶A羧化酶(ACACA)、硬脂酰辅酶A去饱和酶(SCD)、黄嘌呤脱氢酶(XDH)、嗜乳脂蛋白(BTN)、脂肪酸分化蛋白(ADFP)基因都具有高mRNA表达丰度(表达丰度>5%),脂肪酸转运体(CD36)、脂肪酸合成酶(FASN)、1-酰基甘油磷酸酰基转移酶(AGPAT6)和甘油酰基转移酶(DGAT)基因具有中等mRNA表达丰度(5%>表达丰度>1%),与妊娠期乳腺基因的mRNA表达相比,在泌乳期这些基因的mRNA表达均有显著上调(P<0.05),并且ACACA、SCD、FASN、AGPAT6和DGAT等脂肪合成酶基因的表达在泌乳中期(12 d)最高,而在泌乳初期(6 d)和泌乳末期(18 d)较低,呈现低-高-低的表达模式。转录因子固醇调节元件结合蛋白(SREBF)基因在泌乳开始时mRNA表达增加,在泌乳中期(12 d)表达有10倍上调,其变化规律与脂肪合成酶基因的表达模式相同,说明SREBF基因在小鼠乳腺脂肪合成酶基因的表达调控中发挥重要调节作用。     

小鼠不同泌乳期乳腺脂肪合成相关基因的mRNA表达

为了研究小鼠不同泌乳期乳脂肪合成相关基因的表达规律, 文章采用荧光定量PCR检测了小鼠乳腺中与脂肪合成和分泌相关20个基因的mRNA相对表达丰度和表达差异。结果表明, 在乳腺中脂蛋白脂酶(LPL)、乙酰辅酶A羧化酶(ACACA)、硬脂酰辅酶A去饱和酶(SCD)、黄嘌呤脱氢酶(XDH)、嗜乳脂蛋白(BTN)、脂肪酸分化蛋白(ADFP)基因都具有高mRNA表达丰度 (表达丰度>5%), 脂肪酸转运体(CD36)、脂肪酸合成酶(FASN)、1-酰基甘油磷酸酰基转移酶(AGPAT6)和甘油酰基转移酶(DGAT)基因具有中等mRNA表达丰度(5%>表达丰度>1%), 与妊娠期乳腺基因的mRNA表达相比, 在泌乳期这些基因的mRNA表达均有显著上调(P<0.05), 并且ACACA、SCD、FASN、AGPAT6和DGAT等脂肪合成酶基因的表达在泌乳中期(12 d)最高, 而在泌乳初期(6 d)和泌乳末期(18 d)较低, 呈现低-高-低的表达模式。转录因子固醇调节元件结合蛋白(SREBF)基因在泌乳开始时mRNA表达增加, 在泌乳中期(12 d)表达有10倍上调, 其变化规律与脂肪合成酶基因的表达模式相同, 说明SREBF基因在小鼠乳腺脂肪合成酶基因的表达调控中发挥重要调节作用。     

Overexpression of miR-30b in the Developing Mouse Mammary Gland Causes a Lactation Defect and Delays Involution

Background

MicroRNA (miRNA) are negative regulators of gene expression, capable of exerting pronounced influences upon the translation and stability of mRNA. They are potential regulators of normal mammary gland development and of the maintenance of mammary epithelial progenitor cells. This study was undertaken to determine the role of miR-30b on the establishment of a functional mouse mammary gland. miR-30b is a member of the miR-30 family, composed of 6 miRNA that are highly conserved in vertebrates. It has been suggested to play a role in the differentiation of several cell types.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The expression of miR-30b was found to be regulated during mammary gland development. Transgenic mice overexpressing miR-30b in mammary epithelial cells were used to investigate its role. During lactation, mammary histological analysis of the transgenic mice showed a reduction in the size of alveolar lumen, a defect of the lipid droplets and a growth defect of pups fed by transgenic females. Moreover some mammary epithelial differentiated structures persisted during involution, suggesting a delay in the process. The genes whose expression was affected by the overexpression of miR-30b were characterized by microarray analysis.

Conclusion/Significance

Our data suggests that miR-30b is important for the biology of the mammary gland and demonstrates that the deregulation of only one miRNA could affect lactation and involution.     

Loss of connexin 26 in mammary epithelium during early but not during late pregnancy results in unscheduled apoptosis and impaired development

Gap junctions are intercellular channels that are formed by the protein family of connexins (Cxs). In mammary tissue, Cx26 and Cx32 are present in the secretory epithelium and Cx43 is localized in the myoepithelium. The expression of Cx26 and Cx32 is induced during pregnancy and lactation, respectively, thus suggesting unique roles for them in the functional development of the gland. The requirement for these connexins was explored using several strains of genetically altered mice: mice with an inactivated Cx32 gene, mice in which the Cx43 gene had been replaced with the Cx32 gene (Cx43KI32 mice) and mice in which the Cx26 gene was specifically ablated in mammary epithelium at different stages of development using Cre-loxP-based recombination. Normal mammary development was obtained in Cx32-null mice and in Cx43KI32 mammary tissue. In contrast, loss of Cx26 in mammary epithelium before puberty resulted in abrogated lobulo-alveolar development and increased cell death during pregnancy, which was accompanied by impaired lactation. Loss of Cx26 in mammary epithelium during the later part of pregnancy did not adversely interfere with functional mammary development. These results demonstrate that the presence of Cx26 is critical during early stages but not during the end of pregnancy when the tissue has completed functional differentiation. Cx26 is considered a tumor suppressor gene and Cx26-null mammary tissue was evaluated after five pregnancies. No hyperproliferation or hyperplasia was observed, suggesting that Cx26 does not function as a tumor suppressor.     

Laminin-rich extracellular matrix association with mammary epithelial cells suppresses Brca1 expression

Brca1 mRNA was detectable in female mouse mammary gland tissue from adult virgins, during pregnancy and early lactation. It was associated with phases of mammary epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation but the pattern of Brca1 expression was dissociable from that of a true differentiation marker, beta-casein, by virtue of its significant expression in the virgin gland and termination of its expression in early lactation. In a primary cell culture model, association of a laminin-rich extracellular matrix (ECM) with mammary epithelial cells was required for cell survival and cell differentiation and suppressed Brca1 expression in these cells. ECM-association may significantly contribute to the final restriction in Brca1 expression in the lactating gland in vivo. Interestingly, our results suggest that mammary epithelial cells undergo apoptosis both when expressing and when not expressing Brca1, depending on whether the dying cell populations had been terminally differentiated or not.     

Pattern of expression of the KGF receptor and its ligands KGF and FGF-10 during postnatal mouse mammary gland development

The expression of the KGF receptor (KGFR) and its stromal ligands, KGF and FGF-10, was compared during mouse mammary gland development. KGFR expression in mammary parenchyma is maximal in mature virgin mice, declines during pregnancy and lactation, but rises after weaning. The rise in KGFR mRNA in the virgin animal corresponds to parenchymal growth. The fall in KGFR expression in pregnancy is driven by hormone-induced alveolar differentiation since the level of KGFR mRNA is 5-fold higher in isolated ductal cells compared to alveolar cells. KGF and FGF-10 expression patterns differ during ductal development. FGF-10 is also expressed at about a 15-fold higher molar level than KGF. During pregnancy and lactation, expression of KGF and FGF-10 decreases in intact fat pads but is unchanged in parenchyma-free fat pads. Thus, the decrease in KGF and FGF-10 expression observed in intact glands during pregnancy and lactation is not a direct consequence of the changing hormonal milieu but more likely reflects an increase in the ratio of epithelium to stroma. Differences in the level and pattern of expression of mRNA for KGF, FGF-10, and the KGFR during postnatal development of the mouse mammary gland are a result of morphological development, changes in the ratio of stroma to epithelium, and hormonal regulation of cell differentiation. These changes suggest that the biological roles that these growth factors play are regulated by fluctuations in both growth factor and growth factor receptor expression and that KGF and FGF-10 may have different regulatory functions.