High-performance thin-layer chromatography and densitometric determination of brain ganglioside compositions of several species.

Improved resolution of complex brain ganglioside mixtures was achieved by high-performance thin-layer chromatography. The percentage distribution of individual gangliosides was then determined by direct densitometric seanning, employing a transmittance mode, of the resorcinol-positive spots on the plate. As little as 90 pmol (29 ng) of lipid-bound sialic acid could be detected with a good signal-to-noise ratio. A linear detector response was observed up to 3.0 μg of lipid-bound sialic acid. The brain white matter ganglioside patterns of eight animal species, including human, chimpanzee, monkey, chicken, bovine, sheep, and pig, were examined in detail. In addition, human brain gray matter, rat cerebral, rat brain gray matter, and rat cerebellar ganglioside patterns were also studied. Ganglioside G_M4 (G₇) was found to be one of the major components in primate and chicken brain white matter, but it represented only a minor ganglioside in other species. Other major gangliosides in all brain samples studied were G_M1, G_D1a, G_D1b, and G_T1b. G_M1 was more abundant in white matter than in gray matter. G_T1a, a recently discovered ganglioside species, was found in all species examined, but was most abundant in the rat cerebellum. The latter source also contained high proportions of G_T1b and G_Q1b.     

Gangliosides of Human Cerebral Astrocytomas

Abstract: Ganglioside content and composition were examined in a series of 25 human gliomas, which were graded histologically by the criteria of Kerno-han. The concentration of total gangliosides (lpid-bound sialic acid [LBSA]) was decreased with respect to normal brain tissue in nearly all tumors and the extent of reduction correlated with the stage of tumor anaplasia. The distribution of individual gangliosides was altered in glial tumor tissue with an increase in proportion of the structurally simple gangliosides and reduction of polysialogangliosides. The most consistent and significant difference was the elevation of proportion of ganglioside GD3 from 4–5% of total LBSA in normal brain to 20% in the astrocytoma grade IV. The proportions of gangliosides GM2 and GD2 were also found to be elevated in all grades of the tumors. The simplification of ganglioside composition seems to be associated with transformation of the astrocyte with the accumulation of the simpler gangliosides, since the changes resemble those reported with in vitro transformation rather than those of analyses of preparations of purified glial cells.     

Tissue-specific expression of c-series gangliosides in the extraneural system

c-Series gangliosides in extraneural tissues from young and adult rats were examined using thin-layer chromatographic (TLC) immunostaining with a specific monoclonal antibody A2B5. The composition of c-series gangliosides significantly differed among tissues. In adult rats, while liver tissue contained GT1c, GQ1c, and GP1c, renal tissue had GT3 as the major c-series ganglioside with GT2 in a lesser amount. Pancreatic tissue expressed c-series gangliosides that consisted of GT3, GT2, GQ1c, and GP1c. In other tissues including adrenal, thyroid, and eye lens, GT3 constituted the main c-series ganglioside species. While total ganglioside contents of extraneural tissues were much lower than that of brain tissue, the proportions of c-series gangliosides to total gangliosides were higher in many extraneural tissues. Interestingly, eye lens had the highest GT3 content among rat tissues examined. The compositions and concentrations of c-series gangliosides in liver and kidney significantly differed between 5-day-old and 7-week-old rats, suggesting the development-dependent expression of c-series gangliosides in these tissues. These results suggest that the expression of c-series gangliosides in extraneural tissues is regulated in a tissue-specific manner.     

The lipid composition of axons from bovine brain

Abstract— Bovine axons derived from myelinated CNS axons were found to have 13.5% lipid. This lipid was composed of 20.1% cholesterol, 20.1% galactolipid, 14.6% ethanolarhine phosphatides (56.4% in the plasmalogen form), 18.3% choline phosphatides (10.0% in the plasmalogen form), 9.3% sphingomyelin, 5.6% phosphatidyl serine and 3.4% phosphatidyl inositol. The bovine axons had 0.33 μg ganglioside NeuNAc/mg dry weight. The axon gangliosides were found to contain the four major types of bovine gangliosides, as well as gangliosides G_M2 and G_D3. The latter two amounted to 20.9 and 15.8 mole per cent respectively, of total gangliosides. On a molar basis, about one half of the gangliosides were monosialogangliosides, with a decreased contribution by gangliosides G_T1 and GD_1b relative to ganglioside distributions which have been reported for most other CNS components. The relationship of the bovine axonal lipid composition to bovine white matter and its constituents, as well as to other CNS and PNS axonal preparations is discussed.     

Induction of GM1a/GD1b synthase triggers complex ganglioside expression and alters neuroblastoma cell behavior; a new tumor cell model of ganglioside function

Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial solid tumor in children and tumor ganglioside composition has been linked to its biological and clinical behavior. We recently found that high expression of complex gangliosides that are products of the enzyme GM1a/GD1b synthase predicts a more favorable outcome in human neuroblastoma, and others have shown that complex gangliosides such as GD1a inhibit metastasis of murine tumors. To determine how a switch from structurally simple to structurally complex ganglioside expression affects neuroblastoma cell behavior, we engineered IMR32 human neuroblastoma cells, which contain almost exclusively (89%) the simple gangliosides (SG) GM2, GD2, GM3, and GD3, to overexpress the complex gangliosides (CG) GM1, GD1a, GD1b and GT1b, by stable retroviral-mediated transduction of the cDNA encoding GM1a/GD1b synthase. This strikingly altered cellular ganglioside composition without affecting total ganglioside content: There was a 23-fold increase in the ratio of complex to simple gangliosides in GM1a/GD1b synthase-transduced cells (IMR32-CG) vs. wild type (IMR32) or vector-transfected (IMR32-V) cells with essentially no expression of the clinical neuroblastoma marker, GD2, confirming effectiveness of this molecular switch from simple to complex ganglioside synthesis. Probing for consequences of the switch, we found that among functional properties of IMR32-CG cells, cell migration was inhibited and Rho/Rac1 activities were altered, while proliferation kinetics and cell differentiation were unaffected. These findings further implicate cellular ganglioside composition in determining cell migration characteristics of tumor cells. This IMR32 model system should be useful in delineating the impact of ganglioside composition on tumor cell function.     

Simple micro-method for the isolation of gangliosides by reversed-phase chromatography

A simple and convenient technique has been developed for the isolation of gangliosides from small amounts of tissues or cells. A ganglioside fraction obtained by chromatography of the total lipid extract of DEAE-Sephadex was subjected to alkaline hydrolysis and salts and other non-lipid contaminants were removed by reversed-phase chromatography on a C₁₈ Sep-Pak cartridge. The purified gangliosides were then obtained by chromatography on a small Iatrobeads or Unisil column. This procedure yields a quantitative recovery of gangliosides that are free of contaminants which interfere with thin-layer chromatographic analysis. The procedure was used for the quantitative isolation of gangliosides from human brain white matter and human erythrocytes.     

Membrane lipids of human peripheral nerve and spinal cord.

Major membrane lipids were determined in specimens of human peripheral nerve (cauda equina) and spinal cord of 10 subjects aged 20-70 years. The same lipids were also assayed in myelin from the same tissues isolated with two different procedures and in myelin of cauda equina from 3 subjects aged 17-91 years isolated with a third method. The concentrations (mean and standard deviation) of phospholipids were 90 +/- 11 and 96 +/- 9 nmol/g fresh weight; of cholesterol 70 +/- 15 and 101 +/- 16; of cerebroside 19 +/- 3 and 41 +/- 7; of sulfatide 10 +/- 1 and 11 +/- l; and of gangliosides 0.80 +/- 0.08 and 0.40 +/- 0.05 N in cauda equina and spinal cord, respectively. The proportion of ethanolamine phosphoglyceride was lower and that of sphingomyelin higher in cauda equina than in spinal cord. The myelin of peripheral nerve and spinal cord contained almost the same proportions of lipids as the whole tissue. The protein-bound sialic acid content was 3-fold higher than the lipid-bound sialic acid content in cauda myelin. The fatty acid patterns of choline, ethanolamine, inositol and serine phosphoglycerides of spinal cord and its myelin, were very similar to those of cerebral white matter, while the phosphoglycerides of cauda equina had higher proportions of monoenoic acids and lower proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The fatty acid patterns of sphingomyelin, cerebroside and sulfatide of spinal cord were similar to those of cerebral white matter, while those of cauda equina contained significantly more saturated fatty acids. This suggests that the lipid and fatty acid compositions of peripheral nerve are particularly suitable for the formation of a tightly packed myelin membrane which can be a powerful shield against infections and other injuries.     

Lipid content of brain, brain membrane lipid domains, and neurons from acid sphingomyelinase deficient mice

The cholesterol, sphingolipid, and glycerophospholipid content of total brain, of detergent-resistant membranes prepared from the total brain, and of cerebellar granule cells differentiated in culture from wild type (WT) and acid sphingomyelinase knockout (ASMKO) were studied. Brains derived from 7-month-old ASMKO animals showed a fivefold higher level of sphingomyelin and a significant increase in ganglioside content, mainly because of monosialogangliosides GM3 and GM2 accumulation, while the cholesterol and glycerophospholipid content was unchanged with respect to WT animals. An increase in sphingomyelin, but not in gangliosides, was also detected in cultured cerebellar granule neurons from ASMKO mice, indicating that ganglioside accumulation is not a direct consequence of the enzyme defect. When a detergent-resistant membrane fraction was prepared from ASMKO brains, we observed that a higher detergent-to-protein ratio was needed than in WT animals. This likely reflects a reduced fluidity in restricted membrane areas because of a higher enrichment in sphingolipids in the case of ASMKO brain.     

Comparative study of the glycosphingolipids of chicken bursa of Fabricius and of chicken, rat and human thymus.

1. The glycosphingolipid compositions of the thymus and bursa of Fabricius of young male chickens were compared. The two tissues were found to contain complex mixtures of both neutral glycosphingolipids and gangliosides. Both tissues contained mono-, di-, tri-, tetra- and penta-glycosylceramides; the pentaglycosylceramide displayed a reaction of identity with authentic Forssman antigen when tested against a specific anti-(Forssman antigen) serum. The ganglioside G(m3) containing N-acetylneuraminic acid was the principle ganglioside of both tissues. 2. The thymus contained appreciable amounts of the simple ganglioside N-acetylneuraminylgalactosylceramide, a compound not found in the bursa. The ganglioside G(d3) (disialohaematoside) was detected in both tissues. 3. Rat and human thymus, like sheep thymus (Narasimhan, Hay, Greaves & Murray (1976) Biochim, Biophys. Acta 431, 578-591), both contained a tetraglycosylceramide species as their most complex neutral glycosphingolipid and possessed little or no Forssman antigen. They also contained a complex mixture of gangliosides. 4. The possible significance of these results is briefly discussed.     

Composition and fatty acid content of rat ventral prostate phospholipids

The major phospholipids of rat ventral prostate have been separated and examined using thin-layer chromatography, gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. The main phospholipid classes were choline and ethanolamine glycerophospholipids, accounting for 77.9% of total lipid phosphorus. The prostate also contained small amounts of serine glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelin. The relative proportions of fatty acids in the different phospholipid classes were also determined. Arachidonic acid in prostatic phospholipids is contributed primarily by ethanolamine glycerophospholipids. This fraction contained 65-69 mol% plasmalogens, whereas choline and serine glycerophospholipid fractions contained less than 5 mol% plasmalogens. Ethanolamine, choline and serine plasmalogens contained mainly vinyl ethers of palmitic and stearic aldehydes. Ethanolamine plasmalogens also contained the vinyl ether of oleic aldehyde.     

Purification and structural characterization of de-N-acetylated form of GD3 ganglioside present in human melanoma tumors

The presence of gangliosides containing de-N-acetylated sialic acids in human tissues has been so far shown by using mouse monoclonal antibodies specific for the de-N-acetylated forms, but the isolation and chemical characterization of such compounds have not yet been performed. Since indirect evidence suggested that de-N-acetylGD3 ganglioside could be present in human melanoma tumors, we analyzed the gangliosides purified from a 500-g pool of those tumors. The de-N-acetylGD3 that was found to migrate just below GD2 in thin-layer chromatography was isolated from the disialogangliosides by high-pressure liquid chromatography using the specific antibody SGR37 to monitor the elution. The amount of antigen was found to be 320 ng per gram of fresh tumor or 0.1% of total gangliosides. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of the antibody-positive ganglioside showed that sialic acids were formed of one molecule of N-acetylneuraminic acid and one molecule of neuraminic acid. Radioactive re-N-acetylation of the antigen yielded a GD3-like ganglioside with the radioactive label on the external sialic acid. The constitutive fatty acids were found to differ markedly from those of GD3 and 9-O-acetylGD3 isolated from the same pool of tumors. The major fatty acids were C16:0 and C18:0 in de-N-acetylGD3, whereas GD3 and its 9-O-acetylated derivative contained a large amount of C24:1. These data show that de-N-acetylGD3 ganglioside is indeed present in human melanoma tumors, and the fatty acid content suggests the existence of a de-N-acetylase mostly active on the molecular species of gangliosides with short-chain fatty acids.     

THE DISTRIBUTION OF LIPIDS IN THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM-V. GANGLIOSIDES AND ALLIED NEUTRAL GLYCOLIPIDS OF INFANT BRAIN

—Gangliosides and allied neutral glycosylceramides were isolated from human infant (2-24 months of age) cerebral cortex and white matter. The individual glycolipids were separated quantitatively by a combination of column and thin-layer chromatographic methods on silica gel, DEAE-cellulose and Sephadex G-25. In cerebral cortex G_D1a and G_M1 were the major fractions and constituted more than 70 per cent of the total gangliosides. The concentrations of neutral glycolipids, except for galactosylceramides, were very low: lactosylceramide and glucosylceramide comprised 30 and 5 nmol/g wet weight, respectively. In white matter their concentrations were 10 times higher. The ganglioside concentration was only 50 per cent of that in cerebral cortex: the difference was accounted for mainly by the much lower content of the major di- and trisialogangliosides. Stearic acid was the predominant fatty acid of all brain gangliosides. G_M3, and G_D3 had a considerable content of the very long-chain fatty acids, C₂₂-C₂₄, particularly in the white matter. Glucosylceramide and lactosylceramide had almost identical fatty acid patterns between each other in cerebral cortex and white matter. In the cerebral cortex stearic acid and in the white matter the very long-chain acids predominated. d20:1 Sphingosine comprised more than 20 per cent of total sphingosine in all the gangliosides of the G_l- and G₂-series. G_M3, and G_D3 like lactosylceramide contained significantly less of d20:1 sphingosine. The findings suggest the existence of separate compartments for the biosynthesis of the gangliosides. Glucosylceramides and lactosylceramides of white matter have the same ceramide composition as the galactosylceramides with normal fatty acids and are thus unlikely to be intermediates in the metabolism of the major brain gangliosides which have a completely different fatty acid composition.     

Brain lipids of a case of juvenile Niemann-Pick disease

—Lipids of frontal lobe grey and white matter were examined in parallel from a normal and a diseased child (M. Niemann-Pick), both nine years of age. In the grey matter of the pathological case the following changes, although small, were found: a slight increase in all phospholipids and decreased values for nervonic acid in cerebrosides and for hydroxy fatty acids in sulphatides. White matter seemed much more affected by the disease: water content was about 6 per cent higher which corresponds to an approx. 20 per cent loss of dry substance compared with the normal brain. Further increases were observed in ‘ganglioside’ fraction and in all phosphatides. Cerebroside and sulphatide levels appeared decreased owing to destruction of myelin. In all of the glycerophosphatides oleic acid portions were lowered whereas in sphingolipids mainly nervonic acid values were reduced. Aldehyde content of both tissues seemed lowered in the disease, however, changes in composition were observed only in white matter, where the stearaldehyde portion of ethanolamine glycerophospholipid increased at the expense of palmitaldehyde and oleinaldehyde.     

Brain sphingoglycolipids in Krabbe's globoid cell leucodystrophy

Abstract— Seven sphingoglycolipids were isolated from the white matter of a patient with globoid cell leucodystrophy (Krabbe's disease). After purification by saponification and column and preparative thin-layer chromatography, these compounds were analysed for the carbohydrate composition and sequence and for fatty acid composition by paper and gas-liquid chromatography. The compounds were identified as gluco- and galactocerebrosides, lactosyl-ceramide, digalactosy I-glucosyl-ceramide, two types of tetrahexosyl-ceramides (asialo-ganglioside and globoside), and sulphatide. Glucocerebrosideconstituted 13 percent of total cerebroside in white matter, but sulphatide contained only galactose. Galactocere-broside and sulphatide exhibited compositions of fatty acids similar to those in normal white matter, with only minor abnormalities. Other sphingoglycolipids showed fatty acid patterns with relatively high proportions of longer-chain fatty acids, rather than the predominant C_18:0 acid usually found in ceramide hexosides of the brain. Hematoside, also found in the white matter in a significant amount, similarly contained a large proportion of longer-chain fatty acids, whereas other gangliosides contained predominantly C_18:0 acid. The abnormal ceramide hexoside pattern was restricted mostly to white matter except for glucocerebroside, which constituted 32 per cent of grey matter cerebroside. We postulate that the visceral type of sphingoglycolipids may be constituents of globoid cells, abundantly present in white matter and considered to be cells of mesenchymal origin.     

STALOSYLGALACTOSYL CERAMTDE AS A SPECIFIC MARKER FOR HUMAN MYELIN AND OLIGODENDROGLIAL PERIKARYA: GANGLIOSIDES OF HUMAN MYELIN, OLIGODENDROGLIA AND NEURONS

Gangliosides were isolated from human brain myelin, oligodendroglia, and neurons. Quantitative analysis revealed the following ganglioside contents: myelin, 2.0; neurons, 1.3; and oligodendroglia, 0.35 μg ganglioside sialic acid per mg protein. Myclin had a relatively simple ganglioside pattern with G_M4 and G_M1 as the predominant ganglioside species. The ganglioside pattern of oligodendroglia was quite complex and it resembled that of whole white matter rather than that of myelin. A high concentration of G_M4 was found in oligodendroglial fractions in addition to G_M1, G_D1a, G_D1b, and G_T1b. The usually- minor brain gangliosides G_M3, G_M2, and G_M3 were also enriched in oligodendroglia. The neuronal ganglioside pattern was generally similar to the pattern of whole gray matter. Both neurons and whole gray matter contained very low amounts of G_M4. These results indicate that G_M4 is specifically localized in myelin and oligodendroglia of the CNS. Evidence is also presented that myelin, but not oligodendroglia, is the major reservoir of human white matter G_M1 and G_M4.     

THE REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF SIALOGLYCOPROTEINS, GANGLIOSIDES AND SIALIDASE IN BOVINE BRAIN

Abstract— Sialoglycoproteins and gangliosides were characterized in various bovine brain regions by determining the amount of sialic acid. Expressed per g dry weight, the gangliosidic sialic acid ranged from 11·20 to 1·93 μmol and the glycoprotein sialic acid from 8·93 to 1·84 μmol in grey and white matter respectively (values not corrected for incomplete release and breakdown during hydrolysis). Both the sialoglycoproteins and the gangliosides occur in highest concentration in areas predominating in neuronal cell bodies (cerebral grey, cerebellar grey, caudate nucleus). The lowest concentrations are found in those areas, consisting largely of myelinated fibre tracts and glial cells (pons, medulla, corpus callosum, cerebral white). Relative to the gangliosides the sialoglycoproteins are somewhat more concentrated in white matter.
The sialidase activity was investigated with endogenous substrate as well as with additional gangliosides or sialoglycopeptides. In all conditions the activity was much greater in grey matter than in white matter. The regional sialidase distribution more or less parallels the distribution of sialic acid in the various regions. At high substrate level the sialoglycopeptides inhibit the sialidase activity. There are indications that gangliosides are a far better substrate for brain sialidase than glycoproteins or glycopeptides. The possible significance of this phenomenon is discussed.     

Sialyllactotetraosylceramide, a Ganglioside Marker for Human Malignant Gliomas

The ganglioside composition of surgically removed human glioma tissue was shown to differ from that of normal adult brain tissue. First, it contained reduced amounts of the major normal brain gangliosides of the gangliotetraose series. Second, it contained increased proportions of gangliosides not detected in normal brain tissue. One of these was isolated and established as being sialyllactotetraosylceramide 3'-isoLM1. Radioimmunoassay for this ganglioside antigen in human glioma tissue revealed that 14/14 specimens of grades III and IV were positive but only 1/4 of grade II. Normal brain tissue was negative. These results suggest that sialyllactotetraosylceramide is a marker for human malignant gliomas.     

Gangliosides in subacute sclerosing leukoencephalitis: isolation and fatty acid composition of nine fractions

Gangliosides from brain of an 8 yr old boy with subacute sclerosing leukoencephalitis have been studied in terms of pattern and structure. Thin-layer chromatography showed that both gray and white matter have a highly abnormal pattern, with elevation of the relative proportion of four gangliosides corresponding to minor species in normal brain. The total level of lipid-bound sialic acid, however, was not increased, which indicated a compensating loss of other gangliosides. Two of the proliferating species were monosialogangliosides (G(5) and G(6)) (Korey nomenclature), and two were disialo types (G(2A) and G(3A)). Studies of their carbohydrate structures are described. Nine ganglioside fractions were isolated by preparative TLC in combination with column chromatography, and the fatty acid compositions were determined. Seven contained stearate as the major component, while two (G(3A) and G(6)) had relatively large proportions of oleate and palmitate. Five of the fractions contained two fatty acids of long chain-length and unknown structure.     

Synthesis and uptake of gangliosides by choleragen-responsive human fibroblasts.

Human fibroblasts, cultured in medium containing 10% fetal calf serum, responded dramatically to choleragen with an increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate content to greater than 48 times basal levels. Analysis of these cells for gangliosides indicated that the major ganglioside was N-acetylneuraminylgalactosylglucosylceramide (GM3) with trace amounts (less than or equal to 100 pmol/mg of protein) of other gangliosides including GM1, the putative choleragen receptor. Although the cells contained three glycosyltransferases required for ganglioside synthesis, the N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase activity necessary for the conversion of GM3 to more complex gangliosides was not detected. When the cells were grown in medium containing [14C]galactose or N-acety[3H]mannosamine, however, all of the gangliosides became labeled, indicating that the cells can synthesize complex gangliosides. Although fetal calf serum contains gangliosides including GM1, [3H]GM1 was taken up poorly from the growth medium and uptake at the rate observed could have accounted for less than 2% of the GM1 content of the cells. When the cells were incubated in chemically defined medium containing [3H]GM1 at the concentrations present in fetal calf serum, rapid uptake of the ganglioside occurred and the total GM1 content of the cells increased threefold in less than 3 h. Thus, although the cells are capable of binding exogenous gangliosides, the gangliosides in fetal calf serum are in a form not readily available to the cells.     

Topographical Atlas of the Gangliosides of the Adult Human Brain

Forty different brain samples, consisting of neocortical, archicortical, and paleocortical areas; telencephalic, diencephalic, and mesencephalic subcortical nuclei; and the cerebellum as well as some of the corresponding white matter bundles were analyzed with respect to total content of ganglioside-sialic acid and the ganglioside pattern. The total content of gangliosides seems to depend mainly on the proportions of gray and white matter. Thus, neocortical areas, which are rich in gray matter, have a four- to fivefold higher ganglioside content (per milligram of protein) than white matter-rich samples such as optic chiasm, capsula interna, or corpus callosum. White matter-rich regions, although very heterogeneous in ganglioside composition, are further characterized by appreciable amounts of the myelin-enriched GM4. In the neocortex a remarkable degree of regional pattern differences was revealed. In the frontal and parietal areas there is a moderate, and in the temporal region a strong preponderance of sialic acid bound to gangliosides of the a-pathway (GD1a, GM1). In contrast, the occipital cortex favors the b-pathway of ganglioside synthesis (GQ1b, GT1b, GD1b). A predominance of "b-gangliosides" was found in all structures that are related to the visual system (optic chiasm, pulvinar-thalamus, superior colliculi, visual cortex) as well as in the cerebellum and the nucleus ruber. All diencephalic nuclei tend to favor slightly "b-gangliosides," while the mesencephalic nuclei are very heterogeneous in their ganglioside composition. A preponderance of "a-gangliosides" was found in the periamygdalar cortex, putamen, inferior colliculi, substantia nigra, frontal white matter, internal capsule, globus pallidus, basal nucleus of Meynert, and corpus callosum as well as in the frontal, parietal, and temporal cortices. An exceptional predominance of GM1 and GD1a was revealed for the hippocampal archicortex and the amygdala, suggesting a possible functional correlation to glutaminergic synaptic transmission.