Mental illness and well‐being: an affect regulation perspective

Mental health crucially depends upon affective states such as emotions, stress responses, impulses and moods. These states shape how we think, feel and behave. Often, they support adaptive functioning. At other times, however, they can become detrimental to mental health via maladaptive affect generation processes and/or maladaptive affect regulation processes. Here, we present an integrative framework for considering the role of affect generation and regulation in mental illness and well‐being. Our model views affect generation as an iterative cycle of attending to, appraising and responding to situations. It views affect regulation as an iterative series of decisions aimed at altering affect generation. Affect regulation decisions include identifying what, if anything, should be changed about affect, selecting where to intervene in the affect generation cycle, choosing how to implement this intervention, and monitoring the regulation attempt to decide whether to maintain, switch or stop it. Difficulties with these decisions, often arising from biased inputs to them, can contribute to manifestations of mental illness such as clinical symptoms, syndromes and disorders. The model has a number of implications for clinical assessment and treatment. Specifically, it offers a common set of concepts for characterizing different affective states; it highlights interactions between affect generation and affect regulation; it identifies assessment and treatment targets among the component processes of affect regulation; and it is applicable to prevention and treatment of mental illness as well as to promotion and restoration of psychological well‐being.     

A cross-setting study of chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) personality structure and development: zoological parks and Yerkes National Primate Research Center

This study addressed whether personality ratings using a 43 adjective questionnaire based on the Five-Factor Model generalized from a sample of 202 zoo-housed chimpanzees to a sample of 175 chimpanzees housed in Yerkes National Primate Research Center. Mean interrater reliabilities of adjectival ratings were lower for the chimpanzees housed in Yerkes. In addition, rank order of the interrater reliabilities of items differed between settings. To compare factor structure, we first examined whether we could replicate the original six factor structure found in an earlier study of 100 zoo chimpanzees using principal factors analysis in the Yerkes sample and 102 new zoo chimpanzees. The dominance, extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness factors were clearly replicated in the Yerkes sample and the 102 new zoo chimpanzees. The Neuroticism and Openness factors did not replicate in the Yerkes sample, but they also did not replicate in the new zoo chimpanzees. These findings suggest the need to sample more adjectives representing neuroticism and openness in future versions of the questionnaire. We next sought to determine whether factor structure, as determined by principal components analysis, remained invariant across the two settings. This analysis revealed dominance, extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness factors in both settings and a high level of congruence between the zoo and Yerkes samples for these factors. Finally, we tested whether factor scores in the two samples were similarly related to age and sex. With the exception of differences in age effects for dominance and agreeableness, age, and sex effects were consistent across samples. These findings suggest that, whereas there may be differences in the ease with which ratings are made, personality structure, and development are largely consistent across widely differing settings.     

A polymorphic indel containing the RS3 microsatellite in the 5' flanking region of the vasopressin V1a receptor gene is associated with chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) personality

Vasopressin is a neuropeptide that has been strongly implicated in the development and evolution of complex social relations and cognition in mammals. Recent studies in voles have shown that polymorphic variation in the promoter region of the arginine vasopressin V1a receptor gene (avpr1a) is associated with different dimensions of sociality. In humans, variation in a repetitive sequence element in the 5' flanking region of the AVPR1A, known as RS3, have also been associated with variation in AVPR1a gene expression, brain activity and social behavior. Here, we examined the association of polymorphic variation in this same 5' flanking region of the AVPR1A on subjective ratings of personality in a sample of 83 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Initial analyses indicated that 34 females and 19 males were homozygous for the short allele, which lacks RS3 (DupB(-/-)), while 18 females and 12 males were heterozygous and thus had one copy of the long allele containing RS3 (DupB(+/-)), yielding overall allelic frequencies of 0.82 for the DupB(-) allele and 0.18 for the DupB(+) allele. DupB(+/+) chimpanzees were excluded from the analysis because of the limited number of individuals. Results indicated no significant sex difference in personality between chimpanzees homozygous for the deletion of the RS3-containing DupB region (DupB(-/-)); however, among chimpanzees carrying one allele with the DupB present (DupB(+/-)), males had significantly higher dominance and lower conscientiousness scores than females. These findings are the first evidence showing that the AVPR1A gene plays a role in different aspects of personality in male and female chimpanzees.     

Cognitive research in zoo-housed chimpanzees: influence of personality and impact on welfare

We monitored chimpanzee welfare during the introduction of on-exhibit cognitive research training and testing, as measured by behavior and interest in such training, and related individual variation to personality assessments. We observed 11 chimpanzees (six males; five females) over a 16-month period and compared their behavior across three conditions: (1) Baseline (nontraining/research situations) and (2) an on-going, off-exhibit program of Husbandry Training and (3) Research Pod Activities, on-exhibit, group training for cognitive testing. There was considerable individual variation in their interest levels during research sessions; females and those scoring higher for Openness were present more frequently (including those who actively participated and those who observed others participating), but interest did not vary in relation to rates of self-directed behaviors (SDBs), rank, or the level of social disruptions within the group (i.e. large-scale displays or fights). The frequency of SDBs was predicted by the Neuroticism personality factor, but did not differ across baseline and training contexts, indicating that these activities do not negatively impact welfare. We also explored vigilance as an indicator of social uncertainty, but social monitoring did not differ in relation to either social context or rank. Finally, we explored how the specific characteristics of the research context impacted on SDBs; namely, social context, reward contingency, and visual access to keepers. SDBs increased only when visual access to keepers was restricted, suggesting that visual contact reduced uncertainty in novel training contexts. Overall, the introduction of a cognitive research program did not compromise welfare, and the chimpanzees' repeated interest and willingness to participate suggests that the research was enriching.     

A microarray system for Y chromosomal and mitochondrial single nucleotide polymorphism analysis in chimpanzee populations

Chimpanzee populations are diminishing as a consequence of human activities, and as a result this species is now endangered. In the context of conservation programmes, genetic data can add vital information, for instance on the genetic diversity and structure of threatened populations. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) are biallelic markers that are widely used in human molecular studies and can be implemented in efficient microarray systems. This technology offers the potential of robust, multiplexed SNP genotyping at low reagent cost in other organisms than humans, but it is not commonly used yet in wild population studies. Here, we describe the characterization of new SNPs in Y-chromosomal intronic regions in chimpanzees and also identify SNPs from mitochondrial genes, with the aim of developing a microarray system that permits the simultaneous study of both paternal and maternal lineages. Our system consists of 42 SNPs for the Y chromosome and 45 SNPs for the mitochondrial genome. We demonstrate the applicability of this microarray in a captive population where genotypes accurately reflected its large pedigree. Two wild-living populations were also analysed and the results show that the microarray will be a useful tool alongside microsatellite markers, since it supplies complementary information about population structure and ecology. SNP genotyping using microarray technology, therefore, is a promising approach and may become an essential tool in conservation genetics to help in the management and study of captive and wild-living populations. Moreover, microarrays that combine SNPs from different genomic regions could replace microsatellite typing in the future.     

Obesity and Physical and Emotional Well‐Being: Associations between Body Mass Index,Chronic Illness,and the Physical and Mental Components of the SF‐36 Questionnaire

Objective: To clarify the associations between obesity and health‐related quality of life by exploring the associations between physical and emotional well‐being in relation to obesity and the presence of other chronic illness. Research Methods and Procedures: The study data were collected as part of a postal‐survey within the old Oxford Regional Health Authority of England in 1997. Completed questionnaires were returned by 8889 of 13,800 randomly selected adults aged 18 to 64 years. The main outcome measures were body mass index in five categories (underweight, normal weight, overweight, moderately obese, morbidly obese); chronic illness status (any vs. none and number of such illnesses 0, 1 to 2, 3+); and mean SF‐36 questionnaire score in two summary component measures reflecting physical and emotional well‐being. Results: Of the subjects, 31% were overweight and an additional 11% were obese. Body mass index was significantly associated with health status, but the pattern varied according to whether the measure reflected physical or emotional well‐being. Physical, but not emotional, well‐being deteriorated markedly with increasing degree of overweight and was limited in subjects who were obese but had no other chronic condition; subjects with chronic illnesses other than obesity were compromised in both dimensions. In terms of the number of chronic illnesses reported, the additional presence of obesity was associated with a significant deterioration in physical but not emotional well‐being. Discussion: Overweight and obesity are associated with poor levels of subjective health status, particularly in terms of physical well‐being. The limitations in emotional well‐being that are reported here and in other studies may be a result of confounding by the presence of accompanying chronic illness.     

Weight gain in captive chimpanzee infants: Comparisons by sex,rearing, and colony

Weight gain has been monitored for 13 years in a mixed longitudinal study of captive chimpanzee growth and development. This report presents results of a comparative analysis of weight relative to age in 175 animals during the first 24 months in four sex/rearing groups (hand-reared females, hand-reared males, mother-reared females, and mother-reared males) from three colonies with different physical, nutritional, and social environments (Primate Foundation of Arizona, University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center Department of Veterinary Resources, Bastrop, TX, and White Sands Research Center, Alamagordo, NM). The Lowess method is used to generate fits of weight vs. age for each group and colony, with which individual animals at these and other colonies may be compared for assessment of developmental status. Comparisons of the curves, using the jackknife approach, show that there are significant differences between the curves, indicating that rearing and environmental parameters may be factors in weight gain rate and must be considered in such an assessment. Rearing effects may be the dominant of these factors in weight gain. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Age,sex and beauty: methodological dependence of age‐ and sex‐dichromatism in the great tit Parus major

Carotenoid‐based colour expression is frequently involved in sexual dichromatism, particularly in bird plumage, suggesting a role in sexual selection. Despite much work on expression of the carotenoid‐based ventral plumage coloration of the great tit (Parus major), which represents a popular model in evolution and ecology, a consensus on even the most basic demographic patterns of variation (e.g. age and sex differences) is lacking. This may reflect the use of variable methods for analysing colour variation, although what is not clear, either in this case or in general, is the extent to which these alternative methods are equally effective at describing age‐ and sex‐related dichromatism. Using data obtained over 4 years from a large sample of free‐ranging great tits, we examined how colour‐scoring methodology influences estimates of age‐ and sex‐related dichromatism. We compare: (1) principal components analysis‐derived scores; (2) tristimulus colour variables; (3) a visual model‐independent, carotenoid‐focussed colour score; and (4) two colour scoring methods based on avian visual models, examining how they assess colour variation with respect to age and sex to determine how methodology may influence results. We demonstrate clear age‐ and sex‐dependent expression of this colour trait, both in our own data and in meta‐analyses of results from great tit populations across Europe, and discuss the merits of the various colour scores, which yield very different estimates of the extent of age‐ and sex‐dependent dichromatism. We show variation is likely to be visible to conspecifics and propose a novel, visual model‐derived scoring system for describing variation in carotenoid‐based colour patches, where the perceived signal is divided into independent chromatic and achromatic components, in line with current understanding of visual perception. The present study highlights the impact of colour‐scoring methodology and shows that, as novel measures continue to be developed, researchers should consider carefully how they quantify colour expression. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 101 , 777–796.     

The mesoscavenger release hypothesis and implications for ecosystem and human well‐being

Many apex scavenger species, including nearly all obligate scavengers, are in a state of rapid decline and there is growing evidence these declines can drastically alter ecological food webs. Our understanding of how apex scavengers regulate populations of mesoscavengers, those less‐efficient scavengers occupying mid‐trophic levels, is improving; yet, there has been no comprehensive evaluation of the evidence around the competitive release of these species by the loss of apex scavengers. Here we present current evidence that supports the mesoscavenger release hypothesis, the increase in mesoscavengers and increase in carrion in the face of declining apex scavengers. We provide two models of scavenger dynamics to demonstrate that the mesoscavenger release hypothesis is consistent with ecological theory. We further examine the ecological and human well‐being implications of apex scavenger decline, including carrion removal and disease regulation services.     

Enclosure choice and well‐being in giant pandas: is it all about control?

Behavioral and hormonal data were compared for four giant pandas in two management conditions: (1) panda confined to exhibit area and (2) panda given choice to move freely between exhibit and off‐exhibit bedroom areas. Pandas displayed fewer signs of behavioral agitation and lower urinary cortisol in the free choice condition. Time active did not differ between the two conditions. These results suggest that simply offering pandas free access to alternative locations can improve behavioral and hormonal variables that may be related to well‐being. Zoo Biol 0:1–7, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

P‐glycoprotein (ABCB1) inhibited network of mitochondrion transport along microtubule and BMP signal‐induced cell shape in chimpanzee left cerebrum by systems‐theoretical analysis

We constructed the significant low‐expression P‐glycoprotein (ABCB1) inhibited transport and signal network in chimpanzee compared with high‐expression (fold change ≥2) the human left cerebrum in GEO data set, by using integration of gene regulatory activated and inhibited network inference method with gene ontology (GO) analysis. Our result showed that ABCB1 transport and signal upstream network RAB2A inhibited ABCB1, and downstream ABCB1‐inhibited SMAD1_2, NCK2, SLC25A46, GDF10, RASGRP1, EGFR, LRPPRC, RASSF2, RASA4, CA2, CBLB, UBR5, SLC25A16, ITGB3BP, DDIT4, PDPN, RAB2A in chimpanzee left cerebrum. We obtained that the different biological processes of ABCB1 inhibited transport and signal network repressed carbon dioxide transport, ER to Golgi vesicle‐mediated transport, folic acid transport, mitochondrion transport along microtubule, water transport, BMP signaling pathway, Ras protein signal transduction, transforming growth factor beta receptor signaling pathway in chimpanzee compared with the inhibited network of the human left cerebrum, as a result of inducing inhibition of mitochondrion transport along microtubule and BMP signal‐induced cell shape in chimpanzee left cerebrum. Our hypothesis was verified by the same and different biological processes of ABCB1 inhibited transport and signal network of chimpanzee compared with the corresponding activated network of chimpanzee and the human left cerebrum, respectively. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessing the effectiveness of environmental enrichment in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)

Environmental enrichment is often used to improve well-being and reduce stereotyped behaviors in animals under human care. However, the use of objects to enrich animal environments should not be considered to be effective until its success has been scientifically demonstrated. This study was conducted at Asterix Park in France in April 2009. The study investigated the use of 21 familiar objects with a group of six bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). The dolphin trainers introduced four different objects into the dolphin pool every day on a rotating basis. Using a focal-object sampling method, we collected and analyzed data from twenty-one 15 min sessions. The results revealed a positive correlation between interest behaviors and interactive behaviors. Some dolphins had "favorite toys". However, only 50% of objects elicited manipulative behaviors. These findings demonstrate that dolphins do not treat all objects provided to them as "toys". Behavioral changes in the animals subsequent to the introduction of objects do not necessarily indicate an enrichment effect of the objects; rather, the motivation for the dolphins' behaviors toward the objects must be investigated. The animals' behavior must be considered in light of the social context and of the animals' individual behavioral profiles. The relevance of a constructivist approach to evaluating the effectiveness of enrichment programs is discussed.