Epiphyseal union at the innominate and lower limb in a modern Portuguese skeletal sample, and age estimation in adolescent and young adult male and female skeletons

This study documents the timing of epiphyseal union at the innominate, femur, tibia, and fibula in a sample of modern Portuguese skeletons. The sample was taken from the Lisbon documented skeletal collection and it is comprised of 57 females and 49 males between the ages of 9 and 25. Individuals are mostly representative of the middle-to-low socioeconomic segment of the early 20th century Lisbon population. A total of 18 anatomical locations were examined for epiphyseal union using a three-stage scheme: 1) no union; 2) partial union; and 3) completed union, all traces of fusion having disappeared. Results show that females are ahead of males by 1-2 years and provide similar age ranges for the stages of union than previous studies. Some variations between studies can be explained by methodological differences between dry bone and radiographic observations. However, a review of the literature indicates that socioeconomic status of a given population seems to be of decisive importance to the rate of ossification and most of the differences in skeletal maturation across studies and populations can probably be ascribed to different levels of social and economic development of the societies in which the individuals lived. Although the effects of socioeconomic status in skeletal maturation are greater during childhood than in adolescence, as to make the timing of epiphyseal union a reliable estimate of age at death, they are not negligible and age estimates should take into account the likely socioeconomic status of the individual, whose remains are under examination.     

Age estimation of adolescent and young adult male and female skeletons II, epiphyseal union at the upper limb and scapular girdle in a modern Portuguese skeletal sample

This study completes previously reported ages for timing of epiphyseal union in the postcranial skeleton in a recent sample, with data from the scapula, clavicle, humerus, radius, and ulna. A sample of 121 individuals between the ages of 9 and 29 (females = 65, males = 56) was derived from the Lisbon documented skeletal collection. Epiphyseal union was scored at 16 anatomical locations, using a three-stage scheme: 1) no union; 2) partial union; and 3) completed union, all traces of fusion having disappeared. In the upper limb, the epiphyses of the elbow are the first to fuse at around 11 to 15 years of age, followed by those of the shoulder and wrist. In the scapular girdle, the coracoid area is the first to fuse, followed by the glenoid surface and remaining epiphyses, with the medial clavicle fusing last, by the age of 25-27. There is a sex difference in maturation, with females showing an advance relative to males of about 2 years in the upper limb. Sex differences in maturation are less noticeable in the scapular girdle, but data suggest that females are also ahead of males. Results suggest overall similar age ranges for stages of union as previous dry bone observations, but some studies show significant divergences which seem to derive from methodological issues. Although some radiographic reference standards provide comparable age ranges, they should probably be avoided when aging skeletal remains.     

Epiphyseal union of the anterior iliac crest and medial clavicle in a modern multiracial sample of American males and females

Epiphyseal union of the anterior iliac crest and the medial clavicle is examined in 605 males and 254 females in a sample of modern Americans aged 11-40 years. The sample includes American whites, American blacks, Latin-Americans, and Orientals. This is the first skeletal investigation using a large sample of individuals of known age since the McKern and Stewart study of 1957. Epiphyseal union is analyzed in terms of four stages: 1) nonunion with no epiphyses, 2) nonunion with separate epiphyses, 3) partial union, and 4) complete union. The results provide broader age ranges for the stages of union than previous studies. Age ranges for males and females are similar or vary by only 1-2 years. Racially, no major distinguishing patterns are found except for greater variability in age distributions appearing to exist among American black females. The study furnishes valuable data on epiphyseal timing in the teenage years.     

Age estimation from stages of epiphyseal union in the presacral vertebrae

The presacral vertebrae have various secondary centers of ossification, whose timing of fusion can be used for age estimation of human skeletal remains up to the middle to the latter third decade. However, detailed information about the age at which these secondary centers of ossification fuse has been lacking. In this study, the timing of epiphyseal union in presacral vertebrae was studied in a sample of modern Portuguese skeletons (57 females and 47 males) between the ages of 9 and 30, taken from the Lisbon documented skeletal collection. A detailed photographic record of these epiphyses and the age ranges for the different stages of epiphyseal union are provided. Partial union of epiphyses was observed from 11 to 27 years of age. In general, centers of ossification begin to fuse first in the cervical and lumbar vertebrae, followed by centers of ossification in the thoracic region. The first center of ossification to complete fusion is usually that of the mammillary process in lumbar vertebrae. This is usually followed by that of the transverse process, spinous transverse process, and annular ring, regardless of vertebra type. There were no statistically significant sex differences in timing of fusion, but there was a trend toward early maturation in females for some vertebra or epiphyses. Bilateral epiphyses did not show statistically significant differences in timing of fusion. This study offers information on timing of fusion of diverse epiphyseal locations useful for age estimation of complete or fragmented human skeletal remains. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Development of epiphyseal union in Japanese macaques of known chronological age

Forty epiphyseal unions were studied in the two subspecies of the Japanese macaque at known chronological ages. The age standards of the beginning and completion of epiphyseal union were estimated. The total score of the ratings of the unions revealed significant correlations with chronological age before 9 years of age. The linear regressions were calculated in each group of different sex and different subspecies in order to enable predictions to be made of the chronological age from the total score. Although males and females generally showed the same pattern of sequences, the unions of the females united earlier than those of the males in both subspecies before 9 years of age. The Yaku subspecies demonstrated an earlier union than the common Japanese macaque in both sexes before the age of 9 years old. The epiphyseal union of the Japanese macaque usually developed earlier than the reported union in the rhesus macaque. A large number of epiphyseal unions united at least partially and the total score deviated widely during the range from around 4 to 6 years of age. This period was in accordance with the adolescent growth period, especially in males, with rapid growth of body size as observed based on by somatometrical measurements. The skeletal growth of the trunk was generally late compared with that of the limbs. During the range after 8 years of age, some unions of the trunk united earlier in males than in females. The epiphyseal union could allow a more precise age estimation than the body mass or dental eruption during a certain range of ages. However, developmental estimations obtained from animals fed artificially, as the present samples were, must be applied with caution to wild animals.     

Chronology of fusion of the primary and secondary ossification centers in the human sacrum and age estimation in child and adolescent skeletons

Little is known about fusion times of the primary and secondary centers of ossification in the sacrum, particularly from dry bone observations. In this study, the timing of union of these centers was studied in a sample of modern Portuguese skeletons (90 females and 101 males) between the ages of 0 and 30 years, taken from the Lisbon documented skeletal collection. A three‐stage scheme was used to assess fusion status between ossification centers as unfused, partially fused and completely fused. Posterior probability tables of age, given a certain stage of fusion, were calculated for most anatomical locations studied using both reference and uniform priors. Partial union of primary centers of ossification was observed from 1 to 8 years of age and partial union of secondary centers of ossification was observed from 15 to 21 years of age. The first primary centers of ossification to complete fusion are the neural arch with the centrum of the fifth sacral vertebrae and the last are the costal element with the centrum of the first sacral vertebra. The annular and sacroiliac epiphyses are the first, among the secondary centers of ossification observed, to complete fusion, after which the lateral margin fuses. This study offers information on timing of fusion of diverse locations in the developing sacrum useful for age estimation of complete or fragmented immature human skeletal remains and fills an important gap in the literature, by adding to previously published times of fusion of primary and secondary ossification centers in this sample. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:214–225, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Sex determination of adolescent skeletons using the distal humerus

Accurate determination of the sex of immature skeletal remains is difficult in the absence of DNA, due to the fact that most sexually dimorphic features of the human skeleton develop as secondary sex characteristics during adolescence. Methods of assessment of adult skeletons cannot reliably be applied to adolescent skeletons because of the transitional nature of the skeleton at puberty and the variability of the adolescent growth spurt. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the accuracy of Rogers's method of morphological sex determination using the distal humerus (Rogers: J Forensic Sci 44 ( 1999 ) 55–59) to assess the sex of adolescent skeletons. The sample consists of 7 documented adolescent skeletons from the Christ Church Spitalfields collection at the British Museum of Natural History and 35 from the Luis Lopes skeletal collection housed in the National History Museum (Museu Bocage) of the University of Lisbon, Portugal. Ages range from 11 to 20 years. The technique achieved an accuracy of 81% on the combined sample of 42. This method can be applied to adolescent skeletons once the trochlea begins fusing to the humeral diaphysis, which occurred by age 11 years in the test samples. Am J Phys Anthropol 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Bone growth aud development of secondary ossification centers of extremities in the cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis).

The development of so-called long bones in the extremity has been studied roentgenographically in forty-seven males and fifty-one females cynomolgus monkeys bred and reared at the National Institute of Health. The age of the females ranged from five months to eight years and nine months, and that of the males was from four months to seven years. In addition, the fetuses of six to twenty weeks of gestation age were examined for the time of appearance of ossification centers. As the biological parameters concerning body growth, the body weight and the bone length were measured and the secondary ossification centers were scrutinized and assessed the maturity process on the basis of the criteria that divided the state into eleven stages. Also the allometric analyses of body weight against bone length was conducted. Most of the secondary ossification centers except the proximal fibulal epiphysis appeared during the period from the prenatal stage (15-20 weeks of gestationage) to the postnatal one (several months of age). From four to five months of age, many ossification centers had developed to some extent. But, the appearance of proximal fibulal epiphysis was delayed and often lacking until 10 months of age in female and one year and three months of age in male. The earliest epiphyseal fusion was observed at the distal humeral epiphysis in both sexes. The latest epiphyseal fusion was observed at the distal ulnal epiphysis in both sexes and at the distal ulnal and radial epiphyses in female. From this study, the time of fusion was at five and three guarters years of age in females and at six and a half years of age in males. As a result, it is suggested that the estimation of animal's age might be put to practical use by introducing the assessing method that the score was given from the observation of the secondary ossification center.     

Asymmetry of the os pubis: Implications for the Suchey‐Brooks method

Studies of skeletal development frequently document populational incidences of bilateral asymmetry. Degenerative morphological skeletal changes, attributed to age related and irregular ossification, may also progress asymmetrically, either as the result of asymmetric biomechanical factors expressed over the lifespan, asymmetric expression of physiological processes, or progressive magnification of asymmetry acquired previously during development. This study illustrates the effects of bilateral asymmetry on age at death estimates obtained from human skeletal remains. The Suchey‐Brooks method, which uses the pubic symphyseal face for age estimation (Katz and Suchey, Am J Phys Anthropol 69 1986 427–435), was selected for the study based on its widespread use. Asymmetry in the Suchey‐Brooks symphyseal age phases was found in over 60% of a sample composed of 20th century White male individuals from 18 to 86 years of age (N = 130). However, results suggest that the presence of asymmetry does not compromise the accuracy of the Suchey‐Brooks method if the morphologically older symphyseal face of an asymmetric individual is used to estimate age at death. In addition, weak directional asymmetry and a correlation between age and asymmetry were found. This suggests that a comparison of asymmetry in this area with that in other skeletal areas, where the factors originating and influencing asymmetry are better understood, may be useful in better understanding the biological processes which underlie the age markers used in the Suchey‐Brooks method. Am J Phys Anthropol 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

On the trail of pulmonary tuberculosis based on rib lesions: results from the Human Identified Skeletal Collection from the Museu Bocage (Lisbon, Portugal)

In the last 20 years, studies on human identified skeletal collections have revealed a significant relationship between new bone formation on the visceral surface of ribs and pulmonary tuberculosis (TB). To improve methods of differential diagnosis of respiratory diseases in archaeological skeletons, an investigation was conducted on 197 individuals from the Human Identified Skeletal Collection of the Museu Bocage (Lisbon, Portugal). This sample included 109 males and 88 females who lived during the 19th-20th centuries, with ages at death ranging from 13-88 years. The skeletons were grouped according to cause of death: 1) pulmonary TB (N = 84); 2) pulmonary non-TB diseases (N = 49); and 3) a control group (N = 64) composed of individuals randomly selected among the extrapulmonary non-TB causes of death. The ribs, sterna, scapulae, and clavicles were macroscopically observed. New bone formation on the visceral surface of ribs was recorded in 90.5% (76/84) of individuals who died from pulmonary TB, in 36.7% (18/49) with a pulmonary non-TB disease as cause of death, and in 25.0% (16/64) of the control group. These differences were statistically significant (P < 0.001). Furthermore, in individuals with pulmonary TB, the bony lesions presented mainly as lamellar bone on the vertebral end of the upper and middle thoracic rib cage. Proliferative alterations also occurred on one sternum and in nine clavicles and eight scapulae. This work strongly supports the results of similar studies performed on other documented collections, suggesting that new bone formation on ribs, although not pathognomonic, is a useful criterion for the differential diagnosis of pulmonary TB.     

Non-metric skeletal age changes in the Darajani baboon

Dental attrition, cranial suture closure, and epiphyseal union are compared as indicators of relative age in baboons, Papio cynocephalus (Linnaeus, 1776). Tooth destruction from wear is extreme. Such destruction is certainly a factor of vital importance to feral baboons and may limit life span. As cusps wear away, they form selenes of dentine and enamel which are effective grinding surfaces. In conditions of extreme wear, functional fourth molars may be quite beneficial. Vault sutures of females remain active longer than those of males. In contrast, most other cranial sutures and sites of epiphyseal activity mature earlier in the female than in males. Attrition scores in this sample are as useful as assessments of closure or epiphyseal union to determine the relative position of an individual in an age sequence. The most reliable estimates rely on all three sources.     

Articular constraint, handedness, and directional asymmetry in the human second metacarpal

The hypothesis that functional adaptation of joint surfaces to mechanical loading occurs primarily through change in mass, density, and structure of subarticular trabeculae (the "articular constraint" model) is investigated through an analysis of directional asymmetry among three separate bone compartments in the human second metacarpal. Measures of midshaft cross-sectional geometry, osteometry of the distal epiphysis, and subarticular trabecular microarchitecture of the distal epiphysis (assessed by high-resolution microcomputed tomography) were determined for 29 paired male and female metacarpals from a well-preserved nineteenth-century Euro-Canadian historic cemetery sample. For each measure, asymmetry was quantified using both mean-difference and confidence-interval methods. Both methods found a significant right-hand bias for measures of structural strength in midshaft geometry, as has been previously noted for this sample. Articular size, however, exhibits a right-hand bias only with regard to mediolateral, and not dorsopalmar, dimensions, a result that may reflect directional asymmetry in hand breadth at the distal palmar arch. The most striking asymmetries occur for subarticular trabecular microarchitecture. The right metacarpal head exhibits greater bone volume fraction, bone surface density, trabecular number, connectivity, and a more platelike rather than rodlike structure. These outcomes confer greater resistance to both axial compressive and shear strains for the metacarpal head at the metacarpophalangeal arthrosis. In all, these results confirm and extend previous research documenting structural asymmetries and limb dominance and are consistent with the concept of articular constraint. They also suggest a morphological signal through which functional asymmetry associated with handedness in fossil hominins may be investigated.     

Bilateral asymmetry in skeletal growth and maturation as an indicator of environmental stress.

This study examined the efficacy of bilateral asymmetry in epiphyseal union as an indicator of environmental stress affecting the skeleton. We compared the extent of asymmetry in the postcranial skeleton between two cemetery samples excavated from Medieval Kulubnarti, Sudanese Nubia. Past studies have strongly suggested that these ancient Nubians experienced environmental stress-the early Christian period (550-750 AD) population to a greater extent than the late Christian period (750-1450 AD) population. We hypothesized that if bilateral asymmetry is a reflection of stress, then it should be present or greater in the more stressed population, the early Christian period population, while absent or found to a lesser extent in the less stressed population, the late Christian period population. We computed two mean values, representative of right-side and left-side epiphyseal union, for each individual in both cemetery samples, and tested for significant differences. Bilateral asymmetry was significant in the combined cemetery sample of 90 individuals (P < 0.019). When cemetery samples were tested separately, bilateral asymmetry was significant for the early Christian period sample (P < 0.001), but not for the late Christian period sample. There were no differences attributable to sex. Finally, we discuss why we conclude that environmental stress was favored over a biomechanic explanation as the cause for asymmetry. To the extent that our results support previous findings that early Christian period individuals were more affected by environmental stress than late Christian period individuals, it is reasonable to consider bilateral asymmetry in skeletal growth and maturation a good indicator of environmental stress.     

Broken ribs: Paleopathological analysis of costal fractures in the human identified skeletal collection from the Museu Bocage,Lisbon, Portugal (late 19th to middle 20th centuries)

Although rarely reported in the anthropological literature, rib fractures are commonly found during the analysis of human skeletal remains of past and modern populations. This lack of published data precludes comparison between studies and restricts an accurate understanding either of the mechanisms involved in thoracic injuries or their impact on past societies. The present study aimed: 1) to report rib fracture prevalence in 197 individuals, 109 males, and 88 females, with ages at death ranging from 13 to 88 years old, from the Human Identified Skeletal Collection, Museu Bocage, Portugal (late 19th‐middle 20th centuries); 2) to test the hypothesis that a higher prevalence of rib stress fractures existed in the 133 individuals who died from respiratory diseases, in a period before antibiotics. The macroscopic analysis revealed 23.9% (n = 47) of individuals with broken ribs. 2.6% (n = 124) out of 4,726 ribs observed were affected. Males presented more rib fractures, and a significantly higher prevalence was noted for older individuals. Fractures were more frequently unilateral (n = 34), left sided (n = 19) and mainly located on the shaft of ribs from the middle thoracic wall. Nineteen individuals presented adjacent fractured ribs. Individuals who died from pulmonary diseases were not preferentially affected. However, a higher mean rate of fractures was found in those who died from pneumonia, a scenario still common nowadays. Since rib involvement in chest wall injury and its related outcomes are important issues both for paleopathology and forensic anthropology, further investigations are warranted. Am J Phys Anthropol 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Postcranial robusticity in Homo. II: Humeral bilateral asymmetry and bone plasticity

The analysis of humeral asymmetry in Recent human skeletal samples and an extant tennis-player sample documents minimal asymmetry in bone length, little asymmetry in distal humeral articular breadth, but pronounced and variable asymmetry in mid- and distal diaphyseal crosssectional geometric parameters. More specifically, skeletal samples of normal modern Euroamericans, prehistoric and early historic Amerindians, and prehistoric Japanese show moderate (ca. 5–14%) median asymmetry in diaphyseal cross-sectional areas and polar second moments of area, whereas the tennis-player sample, with pronounced unilateral physical activity, exhibits median asymmetries of 28–57% in the same parameters. A sample of Neandertals with nonpathological upper limbs exhibits similarly low articular asymmetry but pronounced diaphyseal asymmetries, averaging 24–57%. In addition, three Neandertals with actual or possible post-traumatic upper limb alterations have the same low articular asymmetry but extremely high diaphyseal asymmetries, averaging 112–215%. These data support those from experimental work on animals, exercise programs of humans, and human clinical contexts in establishing the high degree of diaphyseal plasticity possible for humans, past and present, under changing biomechanical loading conditions. This lends support to activity-related functional interpretations of changing human diaphyseal morphology and robusticity during the Pleistocene. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Brief communication: Developmental versus functional three‐dimensional geometric morphometric‐based modularity of the human proximal humerus

The proximal humerus is formed by three secondary ossification centers during the postnatal trajectory of the human infant. The ossification centers later grow into the structures of the articular surface, major tubercle, and minor tubercle. There is a purported functional division between the articular surface and the tubercles, with the articular surface mainly responsible for the range of movement of the shoulder joint, and the tubercles bearing the insertions of the rotator cuff muscles, mainly devoted to securing the joint against humeral displacement. Using three‐dimensional geometric morphometrics, we tested the presence of such developmental and functional divisions in the proximal humerus, applying the RV coefficient of Escoufier to these a priori hypothesized modules. Our results indicate that the proximal humerus might be a generally integrated structure. However, a weak signal for modular configuration was present, with slightly stronger support for the two modules depicting the boundaries between the purported functional regions of the epiphysis: the articular surface and the tubercles. Am J Phys Anthropol 154:459–465, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Skeletal evidence of tuberculosis in a modern identified human skeletal collection (Certosa cemetery,Bologna, Italy)

The diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) in osteoarcheological series relies on the identification of osseous lesions caused by the disease. The study of identified skeletal collections provides the opportunity to investigate the distribution of skeletal lesions in relation to this disease. The aim of this study was to examine the skeletal evidence for TB in late adolescent and adult individuals from the identified human collection of the Certosa cemetery of Bologna (Italy, 19th–20th c.). The sample group consists of 244 individuals (138 males, 106 females) ranging from 17 to 88 years of age. The sample was divided into three groups on the basis of the recorded cause of death: TB (N = 64), pulmonary non‐TB (N = 29), and other diseases (N = 151). Skeletal lesions reported to be related to TB were analyzed. The vertebral lesions were classified into three types: enlarged foramina (EnF, vascular foramina with diameter of 3–5 mm), erosions (ER), and other foramina (OtF, cavities of various shapes > 3 mm). A CT scan analysis was also performed on vertebral bodies. Some lesions were seldom present in our sample (e.g., tuberculous arthritis). OtF (23.7%) and subperiosteal new bone formation on ribs (54.2%) are significantly more frequent in the TB group with respect to the other groups. The CT scan analysis showed that the vertebrae of individuals who have died of TB may have internal cavities in the absence of external lesions. These traits represent useful elements in the paleopathological diagnosis of TB. Am J Phys Anthropol 157:389–401, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Vertebral age changes in Japanese macaques

This study deals with maturation and aging of the vertebrae in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata) of known chronological age. The samples used were 103 skeletons of captive raised Japanese macaques varying in age from 6-23 years. Epiphyseal union between the vertebral body and the epiphyseal disk (epiphyseal ring, annular epiphysis) and degenerative changes of the vertebrae were macroscopically examined. It was revealed that vertebral epiphyseal union develops comparatively rapidly in the sacral and cervical vertebrae, moderately in the lumbar vertebrae, and slowly in the thoracic vertebrae. It was found that, as a central tendency, the vertebral epiphyseal union begins at about 6 years of age, progresses lineally in proportion to age, and completes at about 23 years of age. However, considerable variation in developmental states of union was observed among individuals of the same age. Concerning vertebral degenerative changes, few were observed among the present samples. Compared with the other primates with regard to the timing of vertebral maturation, shortening of duration of maturation was found among humans. Human vertebrae may have become an early-maturing organ in order to sustain the increased loading that is accompanied by the adoption of habitual erect posture and bipedal locomotion.     

Age estimation in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) based on mandibular dimensions

A new technique has been developed for estimating age in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) that is based on mandibular measurements and has several advantages over presently available techniques. First, the new technique is relatively quick and inexpensive because a single measurement or radiograph suffices to produce an age estimate. Second, mandibular growth represents a more continuous phenomenon than either epiphyseal union or dental eruption; therefore, age estimates may be made throughout the period of growth without significant gaps in the process. Finally, the new technique may be used on incomplete or even fragmentary skeletal material because it requires that only a portion of the mandible be preserved. The new technique produces age estimates with a prediction error of ±5.08 months in males and ±7.29 months in females. These errors are only slightly higher than those found previously for dental eruption or epiphyseal union data.     

Ontogeny of the spheno‐occipital synchondrosis in a modern Queensland,Australian population using computed tomography

Due to disparity regarding the age at which skeletal maturation of the spheno‐occipital synchondrosis occurs in forensic and biological literature, this study provides recalibrated multislice computed tomography (MSCT) age standards for the Australian (Queensland) population, using a Bayesian statistical approach. The sample comprises retrospective cranial/cervical MSCT scans obtained from 448 males and 416 females aged birth to 20 years from the Skeletal Biology and Forensic Anthropology Research Osteological Database. Fusion status of the synchondrosis was scored using a modified six‐stage scoring tier on an MSCT platform, with negligible observer error (κ = 0.911 ± 0.04, intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.994). Bayesian transition analysis indicates that females are most likely to transition to complete fusion at 13.1 years and males at 15.6 years. Posterior densities were derived for each morphological stage, with complete fusion of the synchondrosis attained in all Queensland males over 16.3 years of age and females aged 13.8 years and older. The results demonstrate significant sexual dimorphism in synchondrosis fusion and are suggestive of intrapopulation variation between major geographic regions in Australia. This study contributes to the growing repository of contemporary anthropological standards calibrated for the Queensland milieu to improve the efficacy of the coronial process for medicolegal death investigation. As a stand‐alone age indicator, the basicranial synchondrosis may be consulted as an exclusion criterion when determining the age of majority that constitutes 17 years in Queensland forensic practice. Am J Phys Anthropol 157:42–57, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.