Anthropometric data, proportion and form in children 2 to 5 years old--a longitudinal study

A longitudinal anthropometric study with integrated picture documentation was made in the German administrative district of Potsdam-Mittelmark from April 2002 until April 2003. During that time 183 children aged between 2 to 5 years were measured. The results of the study show, that with the help of the calculation method for pictures, presented here for the first time, additional information about the changes of proportions and body shape can be gained and made measurable. The aim of the study is to make use of the measureable individual changes in body shape for an objective estimation of the biological age. Being able to calculate the age of a child may be useful when investigating a crime, e. g. in case of an abused child, whose chronological age is unknown at the time of the incident, and the only possibility for an age-estimation depends on a picture.     

Effects of X chromosome on size and shape of body: an anthropometric investigation in 47,XXY males

The effects of an extra X chromosome on size and shape of body and head were studied in 47,XXY males; 25 anthropometric measurements were recorded from 29 adult 47,XXY males and compared with those of male relatives and control males. In stature, arm length, leg length, triceps skinfold, and subscapular skinfold 47,XXY males were larger and in biacromial diameter, bideltoid breadth, wrist breadth, and in most head dimensions smaller than normal males. Arm length was increased less than leg length. Increase in stature seemed to be caused solely by increased leg length, and the somewhat feminine proportions in trunk were caused by decrease in biacromial diameter. Correlations of the body and head dimensions between 47,XXY males and their male relatives were found to be normal. The present findings support the earlier proposals that X chromosome carries genes which influence linear growth. It is suggested that the reduction in biacromial diameter is caused by lowered plasma testosterone level which may also have affected sitting height. The control of body and head dimensions seems to be maintained relatively normal.     

Development of a three-dimensional body shape model of young children for child restraint design

Abstract

The design of child restraints is guided in part by anthropometric data describing the distributions of body dimensions of children. However, three-dimensional body shape data have not been available for children younger than three years of age. This study presents body shape models for children weighing 9–23?kg in a seated posture relevant to child restraint design. A laboratory study collected surface geometry data of 67 children, ages 12–58 months. Novel template fitting methods were employed to obtain homologous meshes and to standardize the posture. Principal component analysis and regression were used to develop a statistical body shape model (SBSM). The SBSM was exercised to create 18 manikins representing children aged 1–3 years, with varying size and shape. These manikins will be useful for assessing child accommodation in restraints. The SBSM can also provide guidance for the development of anthropomorphic test devices and computational models of child occupants.     

Influence of some socio-economic factors on growth and development of the boys in the Tuzla region (Bosnia and Herzegovina)

The impact of certain exogenous factor (socio-economic, ecological) has been investigated with special attention paid to the parents' living standard, and number of family members on some anthropometric parameters like: body height, body mass, chest circumference, upper leg circumference, upper arm circumference, sitting height, arm length, leg length, pelvis width, shoulders width, lenght of head and with of head on the sample of 698 boys aged 11 to 16 (17) years in the Tuzla region (the northeastern Bosnia, Western Balkan peninsula). Anthropometric measurements have been carried out using methodology proposed by the International Biological program (IBP). The results of these investigations have shown that there is a certain impact of the socio-economic conditions on the growth and development of boys. Children from families that have better living standard are, as a rule, taller, which is indicated by the statistical significant differences (P > 0.01). This trend indicates also value of Body Mass Index (BMI), which is in younger children from the families with lower living standard 16, while in the same category in the children from the families with better living standard it has value 18.5. The real impact of living conditions on the dynamics of development could be the best seen in the period of puberty. The number of children in the family has negative relationship with anthropometric features. Statistically significant differences (P > 0.001) have been detected in numerous analysed features in families with one or two children in comparison with families with three, four, or five children. Therefore, BMI has been significantly lower (16) in children from families with several children, while in the families with one child in the same growth class (11 years) it was significantly higher (17.4). Similar value of BMI (17.9) have children from the families with five children and which are 17 years old. Besides socio-economic conditions, high level of environmental pollution which is typical for Tuzla region for a long time, has also significant impact on the growth and development of children.     

Results of the study of selected head measurements of Jena children]

Secular changes of head measurements (frontal breadth, bizygomatic breadth, bigonial breadth, auricular height, morphological facial height, lower face height) are analysed. The data are based on the Jena anthropological investigations of school children from 1975 and 1985. The inclusion of the data of the Jena longitudinal study carried out since 1985 allows an analysis of the further secular trend. Noticeable changes are proved in most of the analysed traits (frontal breadth, bigonial breadth, auricular height, morphological facial height, lower face height) between 1975 and 1985. The vertical measurements show greater percentage differences than the horizontal measurements, which, among other things, results in a relative narrowing of the face. In some head measurements (frontal breadth, bigonial breadth, auricular height) the trends continue after 1985. The secular trends show no obvious connection with the temporal acceleration of the dentition in the probands of the longitudinal study. However, a connection seems to be possible between the accelerated puberal growth spurt of the body height and the puberal growth spurt in some head dimensions.     

Anthropometry and the biological structure of the Hvar population

Biological structure of the population of the island of Hvar was investigated by using the data on anthropometric variation among nine village populations; 24 body and 14 head dimensions were analysed from 487 male and 437 female adult subjects. Univariate and multivariate analyses revealed heterogeneity among the populations, which says much for the strength of the isolating factors on the island. Using correlations of anthropometric and geographic distance, the observed patterns of variation among villages were closely related to geography, suggesting migration to be an important factor in the formation of the island's population structure. Populations of the examined villages were further grouped to form the population of the eastern part and the population of the western part of the island, which have an ethnodemographic and sociocultural basis. The analyses revealed heterogeneity between the populations and thus provided evidence to support the hypothesis about the existence of the genetically different groups living in the same biotope.     

Differences in nutritional status between rural and urban Yucatec Maya children: The importance of early life conditions

Early-life conditions shape childhood growth and are affected by urbanization and the nutritional transition. To investigate how early-life conditions (across the “first” and “second” 1000 days) are associated with rural and urban children's nutritional status, we analyzed anthropometric data from Maya children in Yucatan, Mexico. We collected weight, height and triceps skinfold measures, then computed body mass and fat mass indices (BMI/FMI), in a cross-sectional sample of 6-year-olds (urban n = 72, rural n = 66). Demographic, socioeconomic and early-life variables (birthweight/mode, rural/urban residence, household crowding) were collected by maternal interview. We statistically analyzed rural-urban differences in demographic, socioeconomic, early-life, and anthropometric variables, then created linear mixed models to evaluate associations between early-life variables and child anthropometric outcomes. Two-way interactions were tested between early-life variables and child sex, and between early-life variables and rural-urban residence. Results showed that rural children were shorter-statured, with lower overweight/obesity and cesarean delivery rates, compared to urban children. Household crowding was a negative predictor of anthropometric outcomes; the strongest effect was in boys and in urban children. Birthweight positively predicted anthropometric outcomes, especially weight/BMI. Birth mode was positively (not statistically) associated with any anthropometric outcome. Cesarean delivery was more common in boys than in girls, and predicted increased height in urban boys. In conclusion, urbanization and household crowding were the most powerful predictors of Maya 6-year-old anthropometry. The negative effects of crowding may disproportionately affect Maya boys versus girls and urban versus rural children. Early-life conditions shape Maya children's nutritional status both in the “first” and “second” 1000 days.     

Effect of Ascaris infection on the nutritional status and I.Q. of children

It was estimated that about 1.3 billion persons all over the world were infected with Ascaris Lumbricoides (A.L.), Especially children in tropical and subtropical countries. AIM To investigate the effects of A.L. infection on the nutritional status and the intellectual level in a sample of Egyptian primary school children from rural Giza province. SUBJECTS AND METHODS A sample of 637 children (329 boys and 308 girls) aged 6–12 years, have been subjected to some anthropometric measurements including body weight, body height, arm circumference, head circumference and triceps skinfold thickness. In addition, the I.Q. was determined using “Draw-a-man” test. Blood hemoglobin concentration was also determined using a spectrophotometric method. All the children were then subjected to stools and urine examinations, and peri-anal swab. Only 242 children were included for further study, of whom 45 boys and 38 girls were found infected with A.L. solely, and 81 boys and 78 girls of about the same age free of parasitic infections were taken as control. RESULTS Children infected with A.L. has significantly lower body weight, height, and arm circumference but insignificantly lower skinfold thickness and head circumference as comparedto the control group. Infected children had significantly lower hemoglobin concentration and I.Q. than the controls. CONCLUSIONS Selected anthropometric measurements, biochemical and intellectual tests from a useful complementary battery for reliable and informative investigation of the effects of parasitic infection on child nutrition and health. A.L. was found to have a significant effect on the physical and intellectual status of the rural Egyptian children of age 6–12 years.     

Body segment mass, radius and radius of gyration proportions of children

The segment inertial parameters of children are fundamental to the analysis and simulation of their movements. Generally it has been recognized that adult parameters cannot be extrapolated and most of the anthropometric data on children are of little or no use for determining inertias. Consequently, there have been few studies of children's kinetics. In response to this problem a longitudinal investigation, the Laurentian Study of Biomechanical Development, was launched and in this paper the effects of growth on selected segmental size and inertial parameters are reported for boys between the ages of 4 and 15 yr. The twelve subjects, representing heterogeneous body types were followed over 3 yr for a total of 36 observations. Elliptical zones 2 cm wide were used to model the body and segment inertias calculated using segment densities from the literature. These inertias were the mass, moment of inertia and mass centroid location for a fourteen segment planar representation of the body. The general accuracy mean error based on body mass was 0.203% which is consistent with reports from similar studies and techniques. Plots of segment mass proportions with respect to age showed a decrease in the head proportion balanced by increases in the thigh, shank, foot and upper arm proportions in particular. The trends for each segment were consistent with the trends for linear measures reported in the anthropometry literature. Radius proportions to the mass centroid and radius of gyration proportions were also plotted and showed smaller but consistent changes with respect to age. Linear regressions were then fitted to the distributions and standard errors calculated. The magnitude and slope of the regressions were for the most part consistent with a reported cross-sectional study of Japanese children. Where data were available, predicted parameters were compared with the reported parameters for a 12 yr old analyzed using a different mathematical model. Comparisons were also made between the predicted parameters at 15 yr and the reported parameters for healthy young adults who had been scanned using a gamma-radiation technique. For most parameters there was either good agreement or differences could be explained logically. The traditionally used parameters from older cadavers were quite inconsistent with the above. The variances of the 36 observations about the regression lines as indicated by the standard errors were small. As an illustration of the effect of these variances, the trunk parameters for a 10 yr old performing a standing jump for distance were decreased by 1 S.E. and this matched by increases for the thigh, shank and head.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Vertical growth of the anterior face and cranium in inner city Negro children

A longitudinal cephalometric study was conducted on the vertical growth of the cranium and anterior face on 60 inner city American Negro children, an equal number of boys and girls from four to nine years. Three vertical measurements were used for the purpose of this study. The head height was measured from sellion to bregma, bony nasal height from nasion to anterior nasal spine, and lower facial height from anterior nasal spine and lower facial height from anterior nasal spine to menton. The data were analyzed at annual ages and observations made relative to the growth trends. The findings of this study were compared with those on Caucasian children. No significant statistical difference was found in the mean head (cranial vault) height between the Negro and Caucasian children. The mean bony nasal height expressed as a percentage of subnasal height was found to be less in the Negro children. The difference decreased with age. The annual increment of growth in head height was greater from four to seven years than from seven to nine years. The findings are considered to imply that severe malnutrition may influence child growth.     

Effects of the Y chromosome on quantitative growth: an anthropometric study of 47,XYY males

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of the Y chromosome on different body and head dimensions of 47,XYY males, and especially its effect on their body proportions. From seven adult 47,XYY males 25 anthropometric measurements were recorded and compared with four male relatives and 42 control males. In most dimensions 47,XYY males were larger than the normal males, the difference being mainly between 0.5 and 1.5 S.D. units. The body proportions of 47,XYY males were found to be similar to those of the normal males when the effect of size was allowed for. It is concluded that the extra Y chromosome in 47,XYY males causes an increase in their growth without affecting the body proportions. This finding suggests that the Y chromosome contains gene(s) which affects growth by increasing its quantitative outcome. This effect may be mediated by a direct action of the Y chromosome on the cells. It also may seem that the Y chromosomal gene(s) influence the development of the sex difference in height and body size.     

The Tai-Phake of Assam, India--a morphometric study and population comparison with neighbouring groups

Morphometric characters of the adult males of the Tai-Phake and the nature and extent of morphometric variation among five neighboring mongoloid groups of Assam have been examined in the present study. For the sake of investigation 12 anthropometric measurements have been taken and five indices have been calculated. In order to obtain the distance values size, shape and biological distance are calculated. It revels that the Tai-Phake maintains a far distance with other five neighboring groups (Ahom, Deuri, Chutia, Mishing and Moran). The Ahom also maintain far distance with other five groups. While, the Mishing and Moran, and Deuri and Chutia maintain close distance among themselves.     

The indentification and evaluation of measurement variability in the anthropometry of preschool children.

Measurement variability estimates for 18 different anthropometric dimensions were collected within the context of an ongoing longitudinal in vestigation of preschool Guatemalan children. Estimates of total measurement variance, intra-observer variance, and short-term intra-subject variance are presented for each variable. A simple procedure for the evaluation of measurement variance in cross-sectional and longitudinal investigations is described in which the total measurement variance is expressed as a percentage of the appropriate inter-subject variance. This statistic serves as an index of the relative reproducibility of anthropometric variables.     

Dynamic age-related changes in the human physique at stages in postnatal development

In 926 children (7 age groups) combined group differences of the signs have been studied by means of a unified standardized method, using the hand length as a linear measure; the conformity index to definitive size has been applied. For newborns proportional discrepancy to the definitive sizes is specific. They have a relatively long, thick and round body, short extremities, large dimensions of the head and abundant adipose subcutaneous deposits. According to the constitutional peculiarities the newborns resemble the children of the digestive type in mature persons--pycnotic or endomorphic. Beginning from birth, including children of early and first childhood (4-7 years of age), age changes of complexion go in two directions: a) dolichomorphy of complexion is realized; for it decreasing diameters of the chest and dimensions of the neck, chest, abdomen, pelvis (in boys), shoulder, arm, hand, foot and decrease in the subcutaneous adipose tissue are specific; b) longitudinal proportions of body and extremity segments change under influence of biomechanical adaptations to physical loads in connection with adaptation to the vertical position.     

Craniofacial dimensions in children in rural Oaxaca, southern Mexico: secular change, 1968-2000

The objective of this investigation was to analyze the underlying cause(s) of secular changes in craniofacial dimensions among indigenous children in an isolated community in Oaxaca, southern Mexico, between 1968-2000. Subjects were schoolchildren resident in a rural, agrarian, Zapotec-speaking community in the Valley of Oaxaca, previously characterized as mildly-to-moderately undernourished with growth-stunting in 1968 and 1978. In 2000, children had experienced a secular increase in height compared with two prior growth surveys. Four craniofacial dimensions (head length, head breadth, and bizygomatic and bigonial breadths) were measured during anthropometric surveys of schoolchildren aged 6-13 years in 1968, 1978, and 2000. Cephalic and zygomandibular indices were calculated. Samples by survey were: 1968, 151 males and 157 females; 1978, 179 males and 184 females; and 2000, 180 males and 186 females. The analysis was based on a total of 1,037 children. Multivariate analysis of covariance was used to assess secular trend effects, with height, age, and age2 as covariates by sex. Over the interval of 32 years, significant secular changes occurred in craniofacial dimensions and one index: 1) head length was shorter in boys and girls; 2) bizygomatic breadth was narrower in boys and girls; 3) head breadth increased over time only among girls; 4) brachycephalization increased significantly in a linear manner among both sexes; and 5) the zygomandibular index decreased significantly only in boys. Thus, the cranial complex remodeled to a shorter head length, both relatively (brachycephalization) and absolutely. Remodeling over time also resulted in a narrower face, with the midface changing at about the same rate as the lower face (i.e., mandible). Secular changes are generally recognized as multifactorial. Changes in the cephalic index and cranium over time in schoolchildren in an isolated rural agrarian Zapotec-speaking community in the Valley of Oaxaca suggest that the underlying forces for the secular change are associated: 1) decreased food (maize) coarseness or grit content (masticatory stress), and 2) relaxed natural selection, resulting in 3) a greater role for developmental plasticity.     

Secular trends in some Russian populations

Secular changes of body measurements in children have been the subject of studies in many different countries. In recent years, there has been an increase in BMI associated with a significant trend towards obesity in both Europe and the US. The aim of the present study was to analyze trends in body measurements and BMI in Russia from the 1960's to the beginning of the 21st century. This was done at three locations of the Russian Federation: the city of Moscow, the cities of Saratov and Naberezhnye Chelny in the Volga-river area. In addition, data on secular changes of Abkhazian children were analyzed. A large number of anthropometric measurements were taken on each individual including height, weight, arm, leg and trunk lengths (estimated), body diameters and circumferences, skinfold thickness, head and face dimensions. Stages of secondary sex characteristics also were evaluated; data on menarcheal age were collected by status-quo and retrospective methods. Changes in hand grip strength have been evaluated in some of the samples. While stature was increasing during these years, weight, chest circumference and BMI were characterized by negative changes, which became more obvious in elder girls. Changes in handgrip strength also showed negative trends. There were noticeable changes in head and face measurements, which were expressed in more elongated head and face forms, i.e. the head became longer and narrower with narrower and higher faces. Secular changes in head and facial morphology may be considered part of the general trend.     

Growth and Fluctuating Asymmetry of Stepchildren

Parental caretaking is critical for child health and psychological development. Evolutionary logic and empirical studies suggest that stepchildren sometimes may receive less care and experience more traumas than genetic offspring. In this article, we investigate the effects of stepfamily environment on children's physical growth as part of a 12-year (1988–1999) project investigating child health in a rural village on the east coast of Dominica. Participants were 238 children aged 0–20 (X = 10.53) residing in the village of Bwa Mawego. Information on family environments was collected continuously since 1988. Here we analyze data from a longitudinal series of anthropometric measures collected in 1997, 1998, and 1999. To assess general growth, we measured height, weight, head circumference, triceps skinfold, subscapular skinfold, and peri-umbilical skinfold. We also collected medical records of weight from birth through 3 years of age. To assess fluctuating asymmetry (FA), we measured bilateral (right and left side) arm circumference, calf circumference, wrist breadth, ankle breadth, ear breadth, ear height, and length of digits 2–5. Coresidence with stepfather was associated with suboptimal growth. Female stepchildren aged 0–10 and male stepchildren aged 10–20 had lower body weight for age than other children, including their coresident half-siblings. Stepchildren and nonstepchildren had similar weights at birth, and similar muscle and fat cross-sections. Contrary to expectations, FA of stepchildren was lower than in other children. Recognition of the high risk of poor growth for stepchildren is important because of subsequent associations with morbidity, psychological problems, and educational performance. Why stepchildren had significantly lower FA than others warrants further investigation.     

Facial asymmetry: three-dimensional analysis using laser surface scanning

This study evaluates six different techniques with respect to their ability to quantitatively describe facial asymmetry in three dimensions. Three-dimensional facial images were acquired using a Cyberware 3030RGB laser surface scanner. Image processing was performed on a Silicon Graphics Indigo computer workstation. The following techniques for facial asymmetry analysis were developed: asymmetry in the location of anthropometric landmarks, Euclidean distance matrix analysis (EDMA), scalar measurement of the lower ciliary margin and palpebral fissure area, clearance vector mapping, and determination of the volume of asymmetry. Techniques were applied and validated in three anthropometric models: a perfectly symmetrical plastic head model and a plaster head model with and without a unilateral cheek augmentation. In each of the anthropometric test models, each analytical technique was validated by means of static anthropometric facial models and was evaluated for intraobserver and interobserver reliability. Asymmetries in the location of anthropometric landmarks can be accurately determined to within 2 mm in x, y, and z directions of the Cartesian space. EDMA is a useful technique in describing both size and shape changes of discrete areas of the face. Measurement of the lower ciliary margin and palpebral fissure area is reliable. Clearance vector mapping is especially useful in quantifying facial surface asymmetries in facial areas where anthropometric landmarks are scarce. Volume of asymmetry is potentially useful in those patients for whom the use of injections or implants of known volume may be helpful in correcting unilateral facial deficiencies.     

Child growth and adult physique in Brazillan Xingu Indians

Data on stature, sitting height, biacromial width, and some other body measurements on 267 children and 363 adults of the Xingu Indians of Brazil have been analyzed. Adult height shows no significant decrease with age over an age range of 20–50 years, thus indicating the absence of secular changes. The average Xingu child seems to be around the twenty-fifth to fiftieth centile for height of British children (if our age estimates are correct) until about ten years in girls and 14 years in boys, but ends at below the third British centile as an adult. In sitting height, however, the Indians show substantially lower values, with children being at about the fifteenth centile until ten years in girls and 14 years in boys, while the adults are considerably below the British third centile. Other comparisons show that the Xingu are taller than Surinam Indians although of similar shoulder width. The lack of anthropometric data concerning South American Indian adults, and more especially children has been stressed. Investigations of these populations facing rapid acculturation and possible assimilation will form a baseline for the future work in public health as contacts with non-Indians increase.     

汽车驾驶室空间配置和驾驶员座椅设计的探讨

本文应用北京、四川两地工人的人体测量数据,得到一个适应国人体质的汽车驾驶室工作空间配置方式。以肌电图和男性腰背形状分析为依据,文章对座椅靠背的形状也提出建议。与一机部部标准比较,本文结果在国内有更高的适用比例。