Phylogenetic relationships of the genus Frenkelia: a review of its history and new knowledge gained from comparison of large subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid gene sequences.

The different genera currently classified into the family Sarcocystidae include parasites which are of significant medical, veterinary and economic importance. The genus Sarcocystis is the largest within the family Sarcocystidae and consists of species which infect a broad range of animals including mammals, birds and reptiles. Frenkelia, another genus within this family, consists of parasites that use rodents as intermediate hosts and birds of prey as definitive hosts. Both genera follow an almost identical pattern of life cycle, and their life cycle stages are morphologically very similar. However, the relationship between the two genera remains unresolved because previous analyses of phenotypic characters and of small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid gene sequences have questioned the validity of the genus Frenkelia or the monophyly of the genus Sarcocystis if Frenkelia was recognised as a valid genus. We therefore subjected the large subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid gene sequences of representative taxa in these genera to phylogenetic analyses to ascertain a definitive relationship between the two genera. The full length large subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid gene sequences obtained were aligned using Clustal W and Dedicated Comparative Sequence Editor secondary structure alignments. The Dedicated Comparative Sequence Editor alignment was then split into two data sets, one including helical regions, and one including non-helical regions, in order to determine the more informative sites. Subsequently, all four alignment data sets were subjected to different tree-building algorithms. All of the analyses produced trees supporting the paraphyly of the genus Sarcocystis if Frenkelia was recognised as a valid genus and, thus, call for a revision of the current definition of these genera. However, an alternative, more parsimonious and more appropriate solution to the Sarcocystis/Frenkelia controversy is to synonymise the genus Frenkelia with the genus Sarcocystis.     

Digenetic trematodes of marine fishes of Okinawa, Japan

Between May and September 1985, 348 fishes representing 50 families, 107 genera, and 152 species from the coastal waters of Okinawa were examined for digenetic flukes. Ten families (Lepocreadiidae, Opistholebetidae, Gyliauchenidae, Fellodistomidae, Acanthocolpidae, Opecoelidae, Bucephalidae, Cryptogonimidae, Syncoeliidae, and Hemiuridae), representing 29 genera and 34 species of digenetic flukes were recorded. Seven new geographic locality records and 25 new host records were established. Possibly 2 new species, one being a species of the genus Metadena from Meiacanthus grammistes and the other a species of the genus Mesolecitha from Plectorhynchus chaetodontoides, were detected. Most infections were of a single species, and although prevalence and intensity were low, host specificity was high. Only 3 of the 34 species identified transgressed family bounds in their definitive hosts.     

Experimental investigations on the host range of Sarcocystis podarcicolubris

Lizards experimentally infected with S. podarcicolubris sarcocysts were fed to different species of the family Colubridae. Only species of the genus Coluber proved to be suitable definitive hosts and passed sporocysts in their feces. No sporo- cysts were shed by the species of the genus Elaphe, Coronella and Malpolon that were tested. Fecal sporocysts from different species of the genus Coluber were orally administered to numerous lizards of the genera Lacerta, Podarcis and Algyroides. In all experimental lizards, except the controls, sarcocysts of S. podarcicolubris developed.     

Nomenclature of Sarcocystis in the ox and sheep and of fecal Coccidia of the dog and cat.

The nomenclature of Sarcocystis and related protozoan genera is reviewed, and modern diagnoses of the genera Isospora, Toxoplasma, Besnoitia, Sarcocystis, and Frenkelia in the coccidian family Eimeriidae are given. S cruzi (Hasselmann 1926) comb. n., S. hirsuta Moulé 1888, and S. hominis (Railliet and Lucet 1891) comb. n. are recognized in the muscles of the ox Bos taurus; S. ovicanis Heydorn, Gestrich, Melhorn, and Rommel 1975, and S. tenella Railliet 1886 are recognized in the muscles of the sheep Ovis aries; S. bigemina (Stiles 1891) comb. n., S. cruzi, S. ovicanis, S. bertrami Doflein 1901, S. miescheriana (Kühn 1865) Lankester 1882, I. ohioensis Dubey 1975, I. canis Nemeséri 1959, Isospora sp. n. Dubey, and Isospora sp. n. Trayser and Todd are recognized in dog (Canis familiaris) feces; and S. hirsuta, S. tenella, S. muris (Blanchard 1885) Labbé 1899, B. besnoiti (Marotel 1912) Henry 1913, Besnoitia sp. n. Frenkel, T. gondii (Nicolle and Manceaus 1908) Nicolle and Manceaux 1909, T. hammondi (Frenkel 1974) Levine and Nye 1976, I. rivolta (Grassi 1879) Wenyon 1923, and I. felis Wenyon 1923 are recognized in cat (Felis catus) feces. Hoareosporidium Pande, Bhatia, and Chauhan 1972 is considered a synonym of Sarcocystis.     

A phylogeny of planorbid snails,with implications for the evolution of Schistosoma parasites

The Planorbidae represent one of the most important families of freshwater snails. They have a wide distribution and are significant both medically and economically as intermediate hosts for trematode worms. Digenetic trematodes of the genus Schistosoma cause schistosomiasis, a disease that infects 200 million people, and domestic animals throughout the tropics. Three of the four recognized species groups of Schistosoma rely on snails of the family Planorbidae to complete their life cycles. Each species group requires a specific planorbid genus-Bulinus, Biomphalaria, or Indoplanorbis. Our understanding of the relationships among the genera within the Planorbidae is rudimentary and based solely on internal anatomy and shell morphology. Two molecular markers, ribosomal 28S and actin exon 2, were sequenced and a phylogeny constructed for 38 taxa representing 16 planorbid genera. The phylogeny supports the division of the Planorbidae into two subfamilies, the Bulininae and Planorbinae. Interestingly, two representatives of the family Ancylidae fall within the Planorbidae highlighting the need for further analysis and possible reclassification of this group. A molecular based phylogeny of the genus Schistosoma was then mapped against the snail tree. The trees indicate that planorbid-transmitted Schistosoma appear not to be co-speciating with their current snail host lineages. Rather, host switching was prominent, including a switch involving two distantly related planorbid genera, Biomphalaria and Bulinus. Our study of the Planorbidae poses fundamental questions regarding how and when Schistosoma acquired new snail hosts, including how switches to relatively distant hosts are accomplished and why some available planorbids were not colonized.     

The Ruminococci: key symbionts of the gut ecosystem

Mammalian gut microbial communities form intricate mutualisms with their hosts, which have profound implications on overall health. One group of important gut microbial mutualists are bacteria in the genus Ruminococcus, which serve to degrade and convert complex polysaccharides into a variety of nutrients for their hosts. Isolated decades ago from the bovine rumen, ruminococci have since been cultured from other ruminant and non-ruminant sources, and next-generation sequencing has further shown their distribution to be widespread in a diversity of animal hosts. While most ruminococci that have been studied are those capable of degrading cellulose, much less is known about non-cellulolytic, nonruminant-associated species, such as those found in humans. Furthermore, a mechanistic understanding of the role of Ruminococcus spp. in their respective hosts is still a work in progress. This review highlights the broad work done on species within the genus Ruminococcus with respect to their physiology, phylogenetic relatedness, and their potential impact on host health.     

A new family of Alteromonadaceae fam. nov., including the marine proteobacteria species Alteromonas, Pseudoalteromonas, Idiomarina i Colwellia

The taxonomic position of the marine genera Alteromonas, Pseudoalteromonas, Idiomarina, and Colwellia within the gamma subclass of the class Proteobacteria were specified on the basis of their phenotypic, genotypic, and phylogenetic characteristics. Gram-negative aerobic bacteria of the genera Alteromonas, Pseudoalteromonas, and Idiomarina and facultatively anaerobic bacteria of the genus Colwellia were found to form a phylogenetic cluster with a 16S rRNA sequence homology of 90% or higher. The characteristics of these genera presented in this paper allow their reliable taxonomic identification. Based on the analysis of our experimental data and analyses available in the literature, we propose to combine the genera Alteromonas, Pseudoalteromonas, Idiomarina, and Colwellia into a new family, Alteromonadaceae fam. nov., with the type genus Alteromonas.     

Opening the can of worms: molecular analysis of schistosome populations

The Schistosomatidae are dioecious digenean parasites of the blood vascular system of vertebrates. Of the 13 genera within the family, only Sehistosoma is associated with humans and, of the mammalian blood flukes, this genus has achieved the greatest geographical distribution and diversification in terms of recognized species and definitive hosts parasitized. In this review, Dave Johnston, Emmanuel Dias Neto, Andy Simpson and David Rollinson consider some recent molecular research that either sheds light on the micro-evolutionary changes occurring within schistosome populations or provides insights into broader, macro-evolutionary questions.     

Progress in Taxonomy of the Apicomplexan Protozoa

In 1987, 4516 species and 339 genera of the phylum Apicomplexa had been named. They consisted of the gregarines (subclass Gregarinasida) (1624 named species and 231 named genera), the hemogregarines (family Haemogregarinidae) (399 species and 4 genera), the eimeriorins (order Eimeriorida) (1771 species and 43 genera), the hemospororids (order Haemospororida) (444 species and 9 genera), the piroplasmids (order Piroplasmorida) (173 species and 20 genera), and a few others (105 species and 32 genera). The first apicomplexan protozoon was seen by Antony van Leeuwenhoek; in 1674 he saw oocysts of Eimeria stiedai in the gall bladder of a rabbit. The first member of the phylum to be named (by Dufour in 1828) was Gregarina ovata in earwigs. During the quarter century 1826–1850, 41 species and 6 genera of Apicomplexa were named. These numbers increased progressively. In the quarter century 1951–1975, 1873 new species and 83 new genera were named. Data are given for the numbers of named species and genera of apicomplexan protozoa of each group known in 1850, 1875, 1900, 1925, 1950, 1975, and 1987.     

Investigations on the Host Specificity of Dihomoxenous Sarcosporidia in the Intermediate and Definitive Host

ABSTRACT. Cross-transmission experiments were performed in order to determine the host specificity in the intermediate and definitive hosts of the four described dihomoxenous Sarcocystis species, S. gallotiae, S. stehlinii, S. simonyi , and S. dugesii from lacertid lizards of the genera Gallotia and Podarcis from the Macaronesian Islands. Sarcocysts of either species from experimentally infected lizards were fed to a variety of laboratory-bred lizard species of the genera Gallotia, Lacerta , and Podarcis . These sarcocysts proved to be infectious to all examined animals, showing no definitive host specificity in the tested genera. Lizards of the genera Chalcides and Tarentola , however, were not susceptible definitive hosts for S. gallotiae . The inoculation of experimentally obtained sporocysts of each of the four Sarcocystis species to various lacertid lizard species revealed varying degrees of intermediate host specificity, generally demonstrating each native host to be the most susceptible.     

Intraerythrocytic development of species of Hepatozoon infecting ranid frogs: evidence for convergence of life cycle characteristics among apicomplexans

Intraerythrocytic development of the adeleorin apicomplexans Hepatozoon clamatae and Hepatozoon catesbianae were investigated in the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, the green frog, Rana clamitans melanota, and the Northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens. Merozoites emerging from hepatic meronts penetrated erythrocytes and underwent 1-3 rounds of binary fission to produce 2-8 merozoites. Following their release from infected erythrocytes, individual merozoites entered new cells and transformed into gamonts. Although this is the first report of intraerythrocytic development for a fully described species of Hepatozoon, a phylogenetic reanalysis of 11 species of Hepatozoon, 6 species representative of the 5 other hemogregarine taxa, 2 species of dactylosomatids, and 2 species of piroplasms, indicates that asexual reproduction of parasites within blood cells of vertebrates has arisen at least 3 times in the apicomplexan lineage that includes adeleorins and piroplasms. This method of asexual development, which is also observed in species of hemospororin genera such as Plasmodium, is discussed in the context of the evolution of apicomplexan life cycles. In addition to supporting the paraphyly of the genus Hepatozoon determined in an earlier study, this phylogenetic analysis featured a monophyletic group, consisting of the sister taxa Hemolivia and Karyolysus, that was the sister group to a clade consisting of the more derived hemogregarines, the dactylosomatids, and the piroplasms.     

Progress in taxonomy of the Apicomplexan protozoa

In 1987, 4516 species and 339 genera of the phylum Apicomplexa had been named. They consisted of the gregarines (subclass Gregarinasida) (1624 named species and 231 named genera), the hemogregarines (family Haemogregarinidae) (399 species and 4 genera), the eimeriorins (order Eimeriorida) (1771 species and 43 genera), the hemospororids (order Haemospororida) (444 species and 9 genera), the piroplasmids (order Piroplasmorida) (173 species and 20 genera), and a few others (105 species and 32 genera). The first apicomplexan protozoon was seen by Antony van Leeuwenhoek; in 1674 he saw oocysts of Eimeria stiedai in the gall bladder of a rabbit. The first member of the phylum to be named (by Dufour in 1828) was Gregarina ovata in earwigs. During the quarter century 1826-1850, 41 species and 6 genera of Apicomplexa were named. These numbers increased progressively. In the quarter century 1951-1975, 1873 new species and 83 new genera were named. Data are given for the numbers of named species and genera of apicomplexan protozoa of each group known in 1850, 1875, 1900, 1925, 1950, 1975, and 1987.     

Birds as hosts of ixodid ticks (Acarina,Ixodidae)

rophic relations between ixodid ticks of the world fauna parasitizing as adults on birds are analyzed. These ticks include 60 out of 650 species of the family Ixodidae and belong to the genera Ixodes, Haemaphysalis, and Amblyomma. Relations between birds and ticks of the genus Ixodes are most ancient. Colonial marine birds seem to be the first hosts of ixodid ticks in the class of birds. Trophic specialization of ticks is not associated with bird taxa, because in most cases no tick specificity is caused by either phylogenetic features of hosts, or specific environmental conditions.     

Molecular phylogeny of the entomopathogenic fungi of the genus Cordyceps (Ascomycota:Clavicipitaceae) and its evolutionary implications

Cordyceps is an endoparasite ascomycetous genus containing approximately 450 species with a diversity of insect hosts,traditionally included in the family Clavicipitaceae of Ascomycota.Establishing the relationships among species with a varied range of morphologies and hosts is of importance to our understanding of the phylogeny and co-evolution of parasites and hosts in entomopathogenic ascomycetes.To this end,we used a combination of molecular index and morphological characters from 40 representative species to carry out comprehensive molecular phylogenetic analyses.Based on the phylogenetic tree,we used the program DISCRETE for inferring the rates of evolution and finding ancestral states of morphological character.The phylogenetic analyses revealed two important points.(i) Types of perithecia attached to stroma reflected an evolutionary trend in Cordyceps.The vertically immersed perithecia form was the ancestral state,superficial and obliquely immersed perithecia were derived characters,obliquely immersed was irreversible.Species with obliquely immersed perithecia were in a closely related group and were the derived group.(ii) A strong correlation between fungal relatedness and the microhabitat supported the hypothesis that the host jumps through commingling in soil microhabitats.Based on the results of these analyses,host switching explains the diversity of entomopathogenic fungi of the genus Cordyceps.     

Revision and checklist of the species (other than lecudina) of the aseptate gregarine family Lecudinidae.

A checklist is given of the 89 named species of the gregarine family Lecudininae, exclusive of the 42 named species of the genus Lecudina (phylum Apicomplexa, class Sporozoea, subclass Gregarinia, order Eugregarinida, suborder Aseptatina). The list includes also the synonyms, host names, locations in hosts, known geographic distributions of the species, as well as key references. Another list is given of synonyms, lapsi calami, nomina nuda, etc., associated with the genera. A new genus, Paraophioidina g.n., with type species, Paraophioidina haeckeli (Mingazzini, 1891) and a new species, Lankesteria ormieresi sp. n., are described. There are also new combinations in the genera Bhatiella, Ancora, Monocystella, Ascocystis, and Paraophioidina.     

Review of the species of the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Leptomastidea</Emphasis> Mercet, 1916 (Hymenoptera,Encyrtidae) of the World,with description of a new species from Montenegro and with separation of a new genus from Turkmenia

The review contains a key to females of the species of the genus Leptomastidea Mercet, 1926 of the World fauna and annotated synopsis of 25 species with data on their distribution, hosts, plants, and use in biological control [for L. abnormis (Girault)]. L. ljubodragi sp. n. is described from Montenegro. A new genus Proleptomastidea gen. n. is erected for Leptanusia enigmatica Trjapitzin, 1971 from Turkmenistan. Leptanusia turkmenica Myartseva, 1978 is transferred to the genus Anagyrus Howard, 1896 and, thus, a new combination, Anagyrus turkmenicus (Myartseva, 1978), comb. n., is formed.     

The gliding reptiles of the Upper Permian

The skeleton of a long-ribbed reptile from the Upper Permian Marl Slate of north-east England is described. The animal is assigned to the genus Weigeltisaurus , previously recorded from the Kupferschiefer of West Germany. Long-ribbed reptiles from the Upper Permian of Madagascar are also considered. Daedalosaurus Carroll, 1978 is a junior synonym of Coelurosauravus Piveteau, 1926. The European and Madagascan genera can be accommodated within a single family Coelurosauravidae, Infraclass Eosuchia. The skull is diapsid with an incomplete lower temporal arcade. Comparison with the modern Draco and the Upper Triassic kuehneosaurids supports the conclusion that the coelurosauravids were effective gliders.     

Specific features of the seismosensory system and their use in the systematics of five families of the order pleuronectiformes

The structure of the seismosensory system (SSS) was studied in 23 species of 13 genera from the families Rhombosoleidae, Poecilopsettidae, and Samaridae, and a comparison and generalization of the obtained data with those published previously for the families Psettodidae and Pleuronectidae was performed. It was shown that the individual variability of SSS does not concern topography of canals, being manifested in the variation of the number of pores in particular canals. Interspecific differences also concern mainly the number of pores, and revealing these differences requires, as a rule, statistic methods. Considerable differences were found between genera, so that each of the 40 studied genera can be characterized by a unique combination of SSS characters whose polarization was established on the basis of a reduction trend of SSS transformations common for bony fish. The maximum number of plesiomorphies of SSS was found in the genus Psettodes (Psettodidae). In the framework of the family Pleuronectidae, the most generalized structure of SSS was found in representatives of the subfamily Hippoglossinae, and the most advanced, in Pleuronectinae. In the family Rhombosoleidae, the most generalized structure of SSS is in the genus Oncopterus, the remaining representatives of the family Rhombosoleidae are characterized by a different degree of its reduction. In rather closely related families Poecilopsettidae and Samaridae, SSS is considerably reduced, which may be connected with the miniatuarization of their representatives. A small number of considered characters and a high level of homoplasia hinders their use in cladistic study; however, considerable differences between the studied genera and a low interspecific variation permits for the considering of specific features of SSS as valuable diagnostic characters of genera, and the degree of reduction of this system can indicate the relative degree of advancement of a specific taxon of Pleuronectiformes.     

A first phylogenetic analysis of Giant Pill-Millipedes (Diplopoda: Sphaerotheriida), a new model Gondwanan taxon, with special emphasis on island gigantism

The phylogeny of the Giant Pill-Millipedes, order Sphaerotheriida, is investigated using a new morphological character matrix comprising 89 characters. The majority of these characters are employed for the first time in millipedes. All trees obtained agree on the monophyletic status of the Sphaerotheriida and several of its tribes, each restricted to a modern land mass. The species from Madagascar displaying island gigantism do not form a monophyletic group. The classic division of Giant Pill-Millipedes into two families, Sphaerotheriidae and Zephronidae, was not reflected in the analysis. The genus Procyliosoma is the sister-group to all other Sphaerotheriida, rendering the family Sphaerotheriidae paraphyletic. A new family-level classification of Giant Pill-Millipedes, based on the current phylogeny, is introduced. The new family Procyliosomatidae contains only the genus Procyliosoma , distributed in Australia and New Zealand. The family Zephronidae remains unchanged, while the family Sphaerotheriidae now incorporates only the African Giant Pill-Millipede genera. All genera from southern India and Madagascar form a monophyletic group and are placed in the new family Arthrosphaeridae. The Malagasy genus Sphaeromimus is more closely related to the Indian Arthrosphaera species than to other genera from Madagascar. A biogeographical analysis identifies the group as a Gondwana taxon (with a notable absence from South America). The current phylogeny of Giant Pill-Millipede families mirrors perfectly the suggested break-up of Gondwana fragments 160–90 Ma. No evidence for a dispersal event could be found, highlighting the importance of Giant Pill-Millipedes as a potential model taxon.