水飞蓟素药学研究进展

本文综述了国内近10年来水飞蓟素分析方法、全合成及衍生物制备和药剂学研究,也包括了部分国外的主要研究成果。     

水飞蓟素生产工艺探讨

分析比较水飞蓟素的两种现行生产工艺——醇提法和乙酸乙酯提法的利弊，对乙酸乙酯提取工艺采用了分子筛技术提高和稳定溶剂质量，使产品质量稳定提高，生产成本下降     

水飞蓟素提取工艺的改进和探讨

对水飞蓟种皮中的水飞蓟素提取方法进行初步研究。实验采用乙酸乙酯超声波辅助浸提,水飞蓟素提取率可达到7．0％以上,且缩短提取时间（〈10h）,在甲醉体系下3次重结晶,水飞蓟宾纯度可达到97．0％。原料收率为7．07mg／g。研究认为,水飞蓟种子皮壳分离对提高产品质量和资源利用价值有显著意义。     

水飞蓟素对四氯化碳致小鼠肝损伤的保护作用

目的:探讨水飞蓟素对四氯化碳致(CCl4)小鼠肝损伤是否有保护作用。方法:60只ICR小鼠随机分为6组(n=10),正常组、模型组、联苯双酯阳性对照组,低、中、高剂量水飞蓟素组(100、200、400 mg/kg)。各组连续给药10 d,末次给药1 h后,正常组腹腔注射橄榄油,其余各组腹腔注射0.12%的CCl4橄榄油溶液,16 h后测定血清中丙氨基转移酶(ALT)和天门冬氨酸氨基转移酶(AST),肝浆中丙二醛(MDA),谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶(GSH-Px)和超氧化物岐化酶(SOD)的水平。结果:水飞蓟素各剂量组能显著的抑制肝损伤血清中ALT和AST的升高(P<0.05,P<0.01),亦能抑制肝组织中MDA的升高(P<0.01),增加肝组织中SOD的活性和GSH-Px的水平(P<0.05)。结论:水飞蓟素具有明显的四氯化碳致小鼠肝损伤的保护作用。     

水飞蓟素抑制草鱼肝细胞脂质蓄积的作用及其机制研究

为探究水飞蓟素(Silymarin)对草鱼肝细胞脂质蓄积的作用及其机理, 体外培养草鱼肝细胞, 在用400 μmol/L油酸对其进行蓄脂诱导的同时, 采用不同质量浓度的水飞蓟素处理24h, 检测了肝细胞活力、脂质蓄积状况、抗氧化指标和脂质代谢相关基因表达状况。结果显示, 水飞蓟素质量浓度在75—125 μg/mL对草鱼肝细胞活力无影响(P>0.05); 与单独采用油酸进行蓄脂诱导的油酸组比较, 水飞蓟素和油酸共同处理的水飞蓟素组中, 随着水飞蓟素质量浓度的增加, 肝细胞内的脂质含量逐渐降低, 且水飞蓟素质量浓度在100—150 μg/mL时的肝细胞脂质蓄积水平显著降低(P<0.05); 与油酸组相比, 100 μg/mL水飞蓟素处理组的脂质含量以时间依赖性的模式显著降低(P<0.05), 还原型谷胱甘肽含量显著升高(P<0.05), 脂肪酸合成酶和硬脂酰辅酶A去饱和酶1的mRNA表达量显著下调(P<0.05)。研究表明, 水飞蓟素能够抑制草鱼肝细胞脂质蓄积, 其作用可能与其抑制脂质合成基因的表达有关; 同时, 水飞蓟素可能通过提高肝细胞的抗氧化能力发挥保护肝细胞的作用。     

水飞蓟宾及其类似物的化学修饰研究进展

以天然黄酮类化合物为活性先导物,研究其化学结构与生物活性的关系,进而进行化学修饰研究,是目前创新药物的一条重要思路。药用植物水飞蓟用来治疗肝胆疾病已有2000多年的历史,水飞蓟宾作为水飞蓟素的主要活性成分具有保肝、抗炎和抗癌等活性而备受人们关注,但由于水飞蓟宾极低的溶解性极大地限制了其生物利用度。为此,国内外学者通过化学和物理等方法对其进行修饰和改造,并取得了一定的成果。本文就近10年来水飞蓟宾及其类似物的化学修饰研究进行综述。     

防御素的研究进展

哺乳动物防御素为机体表达的抗微生物短肽,分α、β和θ 3类,均具有直接杀菌/抑菌或抵抗某些有包膜病毒的活性,参与机体的免疫.它的发现为临床寻求新型抗微生物制剂提供了思路.     

中药制剂研究进展

本文从中药炮制、复方制剂研究和中药质量保证体系三方面评述近几年中药制剂的研究进展。     

生态制剂的研究进展

生态制剂的研究进展衰佩娜综述周国安审（中国药品生物制品检定所,北京１０００５０）－、微生态学与生态制剂人类要生存繁衍,必须适应环境。一个是外环境即宏观的生态环境,另一个是内环境,即人在出生后与外界的微生物接触,通过演替（Ｓｕｃｃｅｓｓｉｏｍ）形成一个...     

来源于鸡贫血病毒的凋亡素研究进展

肿瘤化疗药物多以p53依赖性途径诱导细胞凋亡,而许多肿瘤在发生过程中丧失了D53功能;此外,在肿瘤发生过程中往往伴随着抑制细胞凋亡的bcl-2蛋白的高水平表达。而来源于鸡贫血病毒的凋亡素能够选择性地诱导肿瘤细胞和转化细胞发生凋亡,并以非p53依赖性途径诱导细胞凋亡,不受bcl-2蛋白的抑制作用。因此,凋亡素作为1种抗肿瘤制剂用于肿瘤治疗能够选择性地诱导肿瘤细胞和转化细胞发生凋亡,而并不杀伤人和鼠的正常二倍体细胞,且无毒副作用…,具有很好的临床应用前景。     

Protective Effects of Garlic and Silymarin on NDEA-Induced Rats Hepatotoxicity

Background ­— The present study was conducted to investigate the chemopreventive effects of garlic extract and silymarin on N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced hepatotoxicity in male albino rats. Methods and Results — Animals were pretreated with garlic, silymarin or both for one week prior to the injection of NDEA. Then animals received a single injection of NDEA followed by weekly subcutaneous injections of CCl₄ for 6 weeks. Oral administration was then continued along with the injection of CCl₄ for the duration of the experiment. Serum aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), hepatic lipid peroxidation (LPO), superoxide dismutase (SOD), reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and glutathione reductase (GSR) were measured. Injection of NDEA induced a significant elevation in serum AST, ALT and ALP. In the liver, NDEA increased oxidative stress through the increase in LPO and decrease in SOD, and GSH-dependent enzymes. Although administration of garlic or silymarin significantly reduced the liver toxicity, combined administration was more effective in preventing the development of hepatotoxicity. Conclusion — These novel findings suggest that silymarin and garlic have a synergistic effect, and could be used as hepatoprotective agents against hepatotoxicity.     

A New Type of Liquid Silymarin Proliposome Containing Bile Salts: Its Preparation and Improved Hepatoprotective Effects

Silymarin, a known extract, is used in the treatment of liver diseases with various origins, but its current administration form cannot target the liver because of its poor oral bioavailability. A new type of oral silymarin proliposome aimed at improving silymarin’s poor bioavailability and hepatoprotective effects, is introduced in this work. Silymarin-loaded liquid proliposome were prepared using a simple dissolving process. The morphology, particle size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency of the silymarin liposomes were analysed. The everted gut sac transport model was used to measure the intestinal transport of liposomes. The liposomal hepatoprotective activity was evaluated in three types of experimental hepatitis animal models. After staining with haematoxylin and eosin, the livers were microscopically examined to analyse any pathological changes. The prepared silymarin proliposome formed silymarin liposomes with a multilayer liposome structure and improved intestinal transport. In an injured liver, the silymarin liposomes produced a stronger hepatoprotective effect through a significant decrease in both the aminotransferase and MDA levels and a significant increase in the SOD and GSH-PX levels compared to orally administered silymarin tablets. This effect was also confirmed histopathologically. In a word, incorporation of silymarin into a liposomal carrier system increased intestinal absorption and showed better hepatoprotective effects compared to silymarin tablets.     

Silymarin improves metabolism and disposition of aspirin in cirrhotic rats

The profile of urinary salicylate metabolites was determined after an i.p. administration of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) to CCl4-cirrhotic rats to rats which in addition to CCl4 received an oral dose of silymarin throughout the CCl4 treatment to produce cirrhosis and to control groups. ASA esterase activity was determined in serum and livers. The time course of plasma concentration of salicylates in similar groups was followed after the i.p. injection of ASA. The cirrhotic animals showed a lack of urinary glucuronides and an increase in urinary gentisic and salicylic acids. The activities of plasma and serum ASA esterase were significantly increased in cirrhosis and the plasma half-life of ASA was reduced. The simultaneous administration of silymarin (50 mg/kg of b.w.) along with CCl4, completely prevented all the alterations. The mechanism by which silymarin prevented those alterations is not completely known but our results establish the potential use of silymarin in cirrhotic patients to prevent disorders in drug metabolism and disposition frequently found in patients with liver diseases.     

Silymarin modulates Cisplatin-induced oxidative stress and hepatotoxicity in rats

Cisplatin (CDDP) is a widely used anticancer drug, but at high dose, it can produce undesirable side effects such as hepatotoxicity. Because silymrin has been used to treat liver disorders, the protective effect of silymarin on CDDP-induced hepatotoxicity was evaluated in rats. Hepatotoxicity was determined by changes in serum alanine aminotransferase [ALT] and aspartate aminotransferase [AST], nitric oxide [NO] levels, albumin and calcium levels, and superoxide dismutase [SOD], glutathione peroxidase [GSHPx] activities, glutathione content, malondialdehyde [MDA] and nitric oxide [NO] levels in liver tissue of rats. Male albino rats were divided into four groups, 10 rats in each. In the control group, rats were injected i.p. with 0.2 ml of propylene glycol in saline 75/25 (v/v) for 5 consecutive days [Silymarin was dissolved in 0.2 ml of propylene glycol in saline 75/25 v/v]. The second group were injected with CDDP (7.5 mg /kg, I.P.), whereas animals in the third group were i.p. injected with silymarin at a dose of 100 mg/kg/day for 5 consecutive days. The Fourth group received a daily i.p. injection of silymarin (100 mg/kg/day for 5 days) 1 hr before a single i.p. injection of CDDP (7.5 mg/kg). CDDP hepatotoxicity was manifested biochemically by an increase in serum ALT and AST, elevation of MDA and NO in liver tissues as well as a decrease in GSH and the activities of antioxidant enzymes, including SOD, GSHPx in liver tissues. In addition, marked decrease in serum NO, albumin and calcium levels were observed. Serum ALT, AST, liver NO level, MDA was found to decreased in the combination group in comparison with the CDDP group. The activities of SOD, GSHPx, GSH and serum NO were lower in CDDP group than both the control and CDDP pretreated with silymarin groups. The results obtained suggested that silymarin significantly attenuated the hepatotoxicity as an indirect target of CDDP in an animal model of CDDP-induced nephrotoxicity.     

Formulation of Microemulsion Systems for Dermal Delivery of Silymarin

Silymarin is a standardized extract from Silybum marianum seeds, known for its many skin benefits such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties. In this study, the potential of several microemulsion formulations for dermal delivery of silymarin was evaluated. The pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were constructed for the various microemulsion formulations which were prepared using glyceryl monooleate, oleic acid, ethyl oleate, or isopropyl myristate as the oily phase; a mixture of Tween 20®, Labrasol®, or Span 20® with HCO-40® (1:1 ratio) as surfactants; and Transcutol® as a cosurfactant. Oil-in-water microemulsions were selected to incorporate 2% w/w silymarin. After six heating–cooling cycles, physical appearances of all microemulsions were unchanged and no drug precipitation occurred. Chemical stability studies showed that microemulsion containing Labrasol® and isopropyl myristate stored at 40°C for 6 months showed the highest silybin remaining among others. The silybin remainings depended on the type of surfactant and were sequenced in the order of: Labrasol® > Tween 20® > Span 20®. In vitro release studies showed prolonged release for microemulsions when compared to silymarin solution. All release profiles showed the best fits with Higuchi kinetics. Non-occlusive in vitro skin permeation studies showed absence of transdermal delivery of silybin. The percentages of silybin in skin extracts were not significantly different among the different formulations (p > 0.05). Nevertheless, some silybin was detected in the receiver fluid when performing occlusive experiments. Microemulsions containing Labrasol® also were found to enhance silymarin solubility. Other drug delivery systems with occlusive effect could be further developed for dermal delivery of silymarin.Key words: dermal delivery, microemulsion, silybin, silymarin     

Silymarin inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis in hepatic cancer cells

Objectives:  The aim of this study was to investigate mechanisms involved in the growth inhibitory effect of silymarin, in humanhepatocellular carcinoma.
Materials and Methods:  The human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2 was utilized and the MTT assay was performed to study the antiproliferative effect of silymarin. Dual staining was undertaken for ethidium bromide/acridine orange, propidium iodide staining and DNA fragmentation studies were executed to confirm the presence of apoptosis. Cell-cycle analysis was revealed by flow cytometry and mitochondrial transmembrane potential was measured by uptake of the mitochondrial-specific lipophilic cationic dye rhodamine 123. Western blotting analysis for cytochrome c, p53, Bax, Bcl-2, APAF-1, caspase-3, survivin, β-catenin, cyclin D1, c-Myc and PCNA was carried out.
Results:  Silymarin inhibited population growth of the hepatocellular carcinoma cells in a dose-dependent manner, and the percentage of apoptotic cells was increased after treatment with 50 and 75 µg/ml silymarin for 24 h. Silymarin treatment increased the proportion of cells with reduced DNA content (sub-G₀/G₁ or A₀ peak), indicative of apoptosis with loss of cells in the G₁ phase. Silymarin also decreased mitochondrial transmembrane potential of the cells, thereby increasing levels of cytosolic cytochrome c while up-regulating expression of pro-apoptotic proteins (such as p53, Bax, APAF-1 and caspase-3) with concomitant decrease in anti-apoptotic proteins (Bcl-2 and survivin) and proliferation-associated proteins (β-catenin, cyclin D1, c-Myc and PCNA).
Conclusions:  Our results demonstrate that silymarin treatment inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis in the human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2.     

Silymarin: an insight to its formulation and analytical prospects

Silymarin, a potential phytochemical compound obtained from the seeds of Silybum marianum plant has been used as a hepatoprotective agent for more than a decade. So far, eight active components of silymarin flavonolignans have been identified, among which silibinin has been proven the most active. However, it had poor oral bioavailability due to extensive phase II metabolism, low permeability across intestinal epithelial cells, low aqueous solubility, and rapid excretion in bile and urine. Therefore it becomes necessary to understand all its formulation and analytical aspects from past to present, including all of its possible future prospects. In modern research scenario, nanotization strategies of drugs has served as a potential approach to enhance solubility, bioavailability and to develop a robust formulation. Several approaches have been utilized previously to enhance the solubility and bioavailability of silymarin to provide it a robust strength against physical, chemical, and environmental degradation. Nanoscale formulations such as nanoemulsion, nanosuspension, liposomes, and solid–lipid nanoparticles can be used to enhance solubility and to target them to desired cells with minimum harm to normal cells. However, many other approaches exist such as dendrimers, ceramic nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes, which serve as a great vehicle in drug delivery to transport medicament at target sites. Therefore, the purpose of this review was to develop a better understanding of the problems associated with silymarin and approaches to overcome the difficulties to develop a better and stable formulation for food and pharmaceutical applications.     

Silymarin and neurodegenerative diseases: Therapeutic potential and basic molecular mechanisms

BackgroundNeurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are primarily characterized by selective neuronal loss in the brain. Alzheimer's disease as the most common NDDs and the most prevalent cause of dementia is characterized by Amyloid-beta deposition, which leads to cognitive and memory impairment. Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by the dramatic death of dopaminergic neuronal cells, especially in the SNc and caused alpha-synuclein accumulation in the neurons. Silymarin, an extract from seeds of Silybum marianum, administered mostly for liver disorders and also had anti-oxidant and anti-carcinogenic activities.PurposeThe present comprehensive review summarizes the beneficial effects of Silymarin in-vivo and in-vitro and even in animal models for these NDDs.MethodsA diagram model for systematic review is utilized for this search. The research is conducted in the following databases: PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Science Direct. Results: Based on the inclusion criteria, 83 studies were selected and discussed in this review.ConclusionLastly, we review the latest experimental evidences supporting the potential effects of Silymarin, as a neuroprotective agent in NDDs.