Male Mating Interest Varies with Female Fecundity in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii</Emphasis> of Kanyawara,Kibale National Park

Female chimpanzees mate promiscuously during a period of extended receptivity marked by prominent sexual swelling. Recent studies of wild chimpanzees indicate that subtle variations in swelling size could act as a reliable cue of female fertilization potential both within and between cycles (Emery and Whitten Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 54, 340–351, 2003; Deschner et al. Hormones and Behavior, 46, 204–215, 2004). Copulation rates increase during the periovulatory period and during conception cycles (Deschner et al. Hormones and Behavior, 46, 204–215, 2004; Emery Thompson American Journal of Primatology, 67, 137–158, 2005a), suggesting that males may be able to assess female fertilization potential. We asked whether facultative timing of copulation in Kanyawara chimpanzees was due to increased male mating interest or to increased female proceptivity during the most fecund days. We assessed multiple measures of male mating effort in cycles aligned relative to the day of detumescence and compared periovulatory days to other days of maximal swelling, and conception cycles to nonconception cycles. The rate and proportion of male initiative in soliciting sexual behavior increased during periods of highest fertilization potential. Males were also more likely to interrupt copulations, associate with estrous females, and compete with other males when females were most likely to conceive. Females initiated copulations more frequently during conception cycles but did not visibly shift mating behavior within cycles. Our results support the hypothesis that male chimpanzees have the ability to assess the profitability of mating attempts, a trait that may act as a counter-adaptation to female strategies to obscure paternity. We discuss potential cues and the implications for female reproductive strategies.     

Modeling habitat suitability for chimpanzees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes verus</Emphasis>) in the Greater Nimba Landscape,Guinea, West Africa

Tropical forests and the biodiversity within them are rapidly declining in the face of increasing human populations. Resource management and conservation of endangered species requires an understanding of how species perceive and respond to their environments. Species distribution modeling (SDM) is an appropriate tool for identifying conservation areas of concern and importance. In this study, SDM was used to identify areas of suitable chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) habitat within the Greater Nimba Landscape, Guinea, West Africa. This location was ideal for investigating the effects of landscape structure on habitat suitability due to the topographic variation of the landscape and the Critically Endangered status of the Western chimpanzee. Additionally, this is the only mountainous, long-term chimpanzee study site and little is known about the effects of topography on chimpanzee behavior. Suitable habitat was predicted based on the location of direct and indirect signs of chimpanzee presence and the spatial distribution of 12 biophysical variables within the study area. Model performance was assessed by examining the area under the curve. The overall predictive performance of the model was 0.721. The variables most influencing habitat suitability were the normalized difference vegetation index (37.8%), elevation (27.3%), hierarchical slope position (11.5%), surface brightness (6.6%), and distance to rivers (5.4%). The final model highlighted the isolation and fragmentation of chimpanzee habitat within the Greater Nimba Landscape. Understanding the factors influencing chimpanzee habitat suitability, specifically the biophysical variables considered in this study, will greatly contribute to conservation efforts by providing quantitative habitat information and improving survey efficiency.     

Savanna chimpanzee (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes verus</Emphasis>) nesting ecology at Bagnomba (Kedougou,Senegal)

We studied the nesting behavior of the critically endangered West African chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus). We assumed that the nesting data stemmed from a single, unhabituated community at the Bagnomba hill site in the savanna-woodlands of southeastern Senegal. The aim of this study was to examine chimpanzees’ nesting habits in terms of the tree species utilized and sleeping nest heights. We recorded a total of 550 chimpanzee nests at Bagnomba between January 2015 and December 2015. The chimpanzees here made nests in particular tree species more often than others. The majority of nests (63%) were in two tree species: Diospyros mespiliformis and Pterocarpus erinaceus. The average height of nesting trees was 10.54 m (SD 3.91, range, 0.0–29.0 m) and average nest height was 7.90 m (SD 3.62, range, 0.0–25.0 m). The result of a linear regression analysis (r = 0.7874; n = 550; p < 0.05) is consistent with a preference for nesting at a particular height. Bagnomba chimpanzees rarely made ground nests (0.36% of nests), but the presence of any ground nesting was unexpected, given that at least one leopard (Panthera pardus) also occupied the hill. This knowledge will enable stakeholders involved in the protection of chimpanzees specifically and of biodiversity in general to better understand chimpanzee ecology and inform a conservation action plan in Senegal where the survival of this species is threatened.     

Noninvasive Monitoring of the Health of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii</Emphasis> in the Kibale National Park,Uganda

We assessed the health status of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) of the Kanyawara group in the Kibale National Park in Western Uganda via noninvasive methods. We conducted visual veterinary inspection, parasitological and urine analysis in association with behavioral observations, causing minimal disturbance or stress to individually recognized chimpanzees. We applied multiple parasitological techniques to 252 stool samples to compare their efficacy in detecting parasitic infection and to increase the power of detecting a wide range of parasites at a more sensitive level. We examined 76 urine samples via a quick detection method to evaluate multiple parameters of urine that indicate organ dysfunction. Results of the different analyses are mutually supportive and provided useful information for monitoring bodily condition and diseases. The multifaceted health evaluation system is a beneficial tool for monitoring long-term and short-term changes in health status due to environmental stress, seasonal dietary change, and disease in wild chimpanzee populations. Use of this method to detect changes in health, when employed together with behavioral observations, may also provide important insights into the potential effects of self-medicative behaviors.     

Distribution and Conservation Status of the Lao Leaf Monkey (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Trachypithecus</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">francoisi</Emphasis>) <Emphasis Type="Italic">laotum</Emphasis>)

Lao leaf monkeys (Trachypithecus (francoisi) laotum) are endemic to a small area of central and, marginally, north Lao. They are known from a few, mostly vague, historical records. We here present a detailed examination of the distribution of this little-known taxon and discuss its conservation status. Surveys since 1992 show its range to be centered upon the karst-dominated Phou Hin Poun National Protected Area (NPA), Nam Sanam Provincial Protected Area, and the southern part of Nam Kading NPA. The known range encompasses <2000 km2, within which occurrence is patchy, reflecting habitat availability. The taxonomic identity of leaf monkeys plausibly of this group reported to the north of this area is not known. In the south of Phou Hin Poun NPA, village reports that the monkeys have black heads are corroborated by the few sightings; their taxonomic relationship with typical Trachypithecus laotum is unknown. In the mid–late 1990s large populations remained and individuals were easily seen. There is no apparent large-scale threat to their habitat. There has been no significant reassessment of status since the late 1990s, nor is there any active conservation action in place. Although the monkeys are to a significant extent protected by the arduous terrain, this cannot be relied upon indefinitely: Trade-directed hunting, although apparently limited in the 1990s, is a potential threat that could cause rapid population declines. Local traditions offer significant starting points for conserving these monkeys.     

Activity and Habitat Use of Chimpanzees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes verus</Emphasis>) in the Anthropogenic Landscape of Bossou,Guinea, West Africa

Many primate populations inhabit anthropogenic landscapes. Understanding their long-term ability to persist in such environments and associated real and perceived risks for both primates and people is essential for effective conservation planning. Primates in forest–agricultural mosaics often consume cultivars to supplement their diet, leading to potentially negative encounters with farmers. When crossing roads, primates also face the risk of encounters with people and collision with vehicles. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Bossou, Guinea, West Africa, face such risks regularly. In this study, we aimed to examine their activity budget across habitat types and the influence of anthropogenic risks associated with cultivated fields, roads, and paths on their foraging behavior in noncultivated habitat. We conducted 6-h morning or afternoon follows daily from April 2012 to March 2013. Chimpanzees preferentially used forest habitat types for traveling and resting and highly disturbed habitat types for socializing. Wild fruit and crop availability influenced seasonal habitat use for foraging. Overall, chimpanzees preferred mature forest for all activities. They showed a significant preference for foraging at >200 m from cultivated fields compared to 0–100 m and 101–200 m, with no effect of habitat type or season, suggesting an influence of associated risk. Nevertheless, the chimpanzees did not actively avoid foraging close to roads and paths. Our study reveals chimpanzee reliance on different habitat types and the influence of human-induced pressures on their activities. Such information is critical for the establishment of effective land use management strategies in anthropogenic landscapes.     

Group Release of Sanctuary Chimpanzees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes</Emphasis>) in the Haut Niger National Park,Guinea, West Africa: Ranging Patterns and Lessons So Far

The release of wild or captive-bred mammals within their historical ranges typically aims to reestablish populations in areas where they have become extinct or extirpated, to reinforce natural populations, or to resolve human–wildlife conflicts. Such programs, which also typically in parallel help foster the protection of the release site, concern a wide range of endangered mammalian species, including our closest living relatives: chimpanzees. In June 2008, the Chimpanzee Conservation Center (CCC), which is located in the High Niger National Park (HNNP) in Guinea, released a group of 12 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) comprised of 6 females and 6 males (8–20 yr old). The selected release site lies 32 km from the sanctuary in the Mafou, a core area of HNNP where wild chimpanzees are also known to occur. The purpose of this release was therefore to reinforce the natural chimpanzee population within the Mafou core area and to promote the protection of the HNNP. Nearly 2 yr postrelease, 9 chimpanzees still remain free-living. Two thirds of the release chimpanzees were equipped with VHF-GPS store-on-board tracking collars. We used data from retrieved collars to explore the release chimpanzees’ habitat use, individual day range, and core area use (50% and 80%) during the first year of the release. Males traveled significantly further than females. Although minimum day range did not differ between the sexes or vary seasonally, some release males were active for longer during the day than the females. Males also ranged over larger areas and used a wider network of core areas than the females. Habitat use was similar to that recorded in wild chimpanzees in the HNNP. As of September 2010, 2 males and 3 females form a group at the release site. Two of these females gave birth to healthy offspring respectively 16 and 20 mo postrelease. Another female successfully immigrated into a wild chimpanzee community. We suggest that the success of this chimpanzee release can be attributed to the CCC’s lengthy rehabilitation process and the savanna-mosaic habitat of the HNNP. This release demonstrates that under special socioecological circumstances, the release of wild-born adult chimpanzees of both sexes is a viable strategy, which can also function as an effective conservation tool.     

Complete chloroplast genome sequence of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Capsicum</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">baccatum</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">baccatum</Emphasis>

Molecular markers derived from the complete chloroplast genome can provide effective tools for species identification and phylogenetic resolution. Complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequences of Capsicum species have been reported. We herein report the complete chloroplast genome sequence of Capsicum baccatum var. baccatum, a wild Capsicum species. The total length of the chloroplast genome is 157,145 bp with 37.7 % overall GC content. One pair of inverted repeats, 25,910 bp in length, was separated by a small single-copy region (17,974 bp) and large single-copy region (87,351 bp). This region contains 86 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNA genes, 4 rRNA genes, and 11 genes contain one or two introns. Pair-wise alignments of chloroplast genome were performed for genome-wide comparison. Analysis revealed a total of 134 simple sequence repeat (SSR) motifs and 282 insertions or deletions variants in the C. baccatum var. baccatum cp genome. The types and abundances of repeat units in Capsicum species were relatively conserved, and these loci could be used in future studies to investigate and conserve the genetic diversity of the Capsicum species.     

Diversity and recombination in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Wolbachia</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cardinium</Emphasis> from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bryobia</Emphasis>spider mites

BACKGROUND: Wolbachia and Cardinium are endosymbiotic bacteria infecting many arthropods and manipulating host reproduction. Although these bacteria are maternally transmitted, incongruencies between phylogenies of host and parasite suggest an additional role for occasional horizontal transmission. Consistent with this view is the strong evidence for recombination in Wolbachia, although it is less clear to what extent recombination drives diversification within single host species and genera. Furthermore, little is known concerning the population structures of other insect endosymbionts which co-infect with Wolbachia, such as Cardinium. Here, we explore Wolbachia and Cardinium strain diversity within nine spider mite species (Tetranychidae) from 38 populations, and quantify the contribution of recombination compared to point mutation in generating Wolbachia diversity. RESULTS: We found a high level of genetic diversity for Wolbachia, with 36 unique strains detected (64 investigated mite individuals). Sequence data from four Wolbachia genes suggest that new alleles are 7.5 to 11 times more likely to be generated by recombination than point mutation. Consistent with previous reports on more diverse host samples, our data did not reveal evidence for co-evolution of Wolbachia with its host. Cardinium was less frequently found in the mites, but also showed a high level of diversity, with eight unique strains detected in 15 individuals on the basis of only two genes. A lack of congruence among host and Cardinium phylogenies was observed. CONCLUSIONS: We found a high rate of recombination for Wolbachia strains obtained from host species of the spider mite family Tetranychidae, comparable to rates found for horizontally transmitted bacteria. This suggests frequent horizontal transmission of Wolbachia and/or frequent horizontal transfer of single genes. Our findings strengthens earlier reports of recombination for Wolbachia, and shows that high recombination rates are also present on strains from a restrictive host range. Cardinium was found co-infecting several spider mite species, and phylogenetic comparisons suggest also horizontal transmission of Cardinium among hosts.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pisum sativum in vitro</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">in vivo</Emphasis>

Six pea (Pisum sativum L.) cultivars (Adept, Komet, Lantra, Olivin, Oskar, Tyrkys) were transformed via Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain EHA105 with pBIN19 plasmid carrying reporter uidA (β-glucuronidase, GUS, containing potato ST-LS1 intron) gene under the CaMV 35S promoter, and selectable marker gene nptII (neomycin phosphotransferase II) under the nos promoter. Two regeneration systems were used: continual shoot proliferation from axillary buds of cotyledonary node in vitro, and in vivo plant regeneration from imbibed germinating seed with removed testa and one cotyledon. The penetration of Agrobacterium into explants during co-cultivation was supported by sonication or vacuum infiltration treatment. The selection of putative transformants in both regeneration systems carried out on media with 100 mg dm⁻³ kanamycin. The presence of introduced genes was verified histochemically (GUS assay) and by means of PCR and Southern blot analysis in T₀ putative transformants and their seed progenies (T₁ to T₃ generations). Both methods, but largely in vivo approach showed to be genotype independent, resulting in efficient and reliable transformation system for pea. The in vivo approach has in addition also benefit of time and money saving, since transgenic plants are obtained in much shorter time. All tested T₀ – T₃ plants were morphologically normal and fertile.This research was supported by the National Agency for Agricultural Research (grants No. QE 0046 and QF 3072) and Ministry of Education of the Czech Republic (grant No. ME 433).     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">In silico</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">in situ</Emphasis> characterization of the zebrafish (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Danio rerio</Emphasis>) <Emphasis Type="Italic">gnrh3</Emphasis> (sGnRH) gene

Background

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) is responsible for stimulation of gonadotropic hormone (GtH) in the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG). The regulatory mechanisms responsible for brain specificity make the promoter attractive for in silico analysis and reporter gene studies in zebrafish (Danio rerio).

Results

We have characterized a zebrafish [Trp⁷, Leu⁸] or salmon (s) GnRH variant, gnrh 3. The gene includes a 1.6 Kb upstream regulatory region and displays the conserved structure of 4 exons and 3 introns, as seen in other species. An in silico defined enhancer at -976 in the zebrafish promoter, containing adjacent binding sites for Oct-1, CREB and Sp1, was predicted in 2 mammalian and 5 teleost GnRH promoters. Reporter gene studies confirmed the importance of this enhancer for cell specific expression in zebrafish. Interestingly the promoter of human GnRH-I, known as mammalian GnRH (mGnRH), was shown capable of driving cell specific reporter gene expression in transgenic zebrafish.

Conclusions

The characterized zebrafish Gnrh3 decapeptide exhibits complete homology to the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) GnRH-III variant. In silico analysis of mammalian and teleost GnRH promoters revealed a conserved enhancer possessing binding sites for Oct-1, CREB and Sp1. Transgenic and transient reporter gene expression in zebrafish larvae, confirmed the importance of the in silico defined zebrafish enhancer at -976. The capability of the human GnRH-I promoter of directing cell specific reporter gene expression in zebrafish supports orthology between GnRH-I and GnRH-III.

     

Comparisons of Suspensory Behaviors Among <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pygathrix cinerea</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">P. nemaeus</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nomascus leucogenys</Emphasis> in Cuc Phuong National Park,Vietnam

In our study at the Endangered Primate Rescue Center of Cuc Phuong National Park, Vietnam, we aimed first to assemble a positional behavioral profile of captive gray-shanked (Pygathrix cinerea) and red-shanked (P. nemaeus) doucs that relates to the use of forelimb suspensory postures and arm-swinging locomotion. The profile is of interest because researchers have documented that red-shanked doucs more frequently use suspensory postures and locomotions than other colobines do. We confirmed that red-shanked doucs commonly use suspensory positional behaviors and also that gray-shanked doucs use suspensory behaviors at similar or even higher frequencies than those of red-shanked doucs. Our second goal was to assemble a preliminary kinematic profile of suspensory locomotion in Pygathrix within the context of the arm-swinging locomotion exhibited by northern white-cheeked gibbons, Nomascus leucogenys. Mean forelimb angles at initial contact and release of arm-swinging behaviors were remarkably consistent among gibbons and doucs despite the fact that gibbons typically used more continuous brachiation. Doucs also exhibit a greater range of forelimb angles than gibbons do. In addition, trunk orientation tends to be less vertical at initial contact for doucs than for gibbons, perhaps owing to the frequent use of quadrupedal sequences directly before or after forelimb suspension. Our behavioral and kinematic analyses add to the emerging realization that Pygathrix is capable of, and frequently expresses, a range of suspensory positional behaviors, including brachiation.     

Grouping Patterns and Competition Among Female <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii</Emphasis> at Ngogo,Kibale National Park,Uganda

In mammals, access to mates is probably the most important influence on male reproductive success, whereas foraging efficiency is probably the most important influence on female reproductive success Emlen and Oring (Science 197:215–223, 1977). Male chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are highly gregarious and form cooperative relationships with other males. In contrast, female social relationships vary within and between populations. Females in most East African populations, e.g., Gombe, Mahale, Kibale-Kanyawara, are less gregarious than males and spend most of their time alone or with only their dependent offspring. Researchers have attributed low female gregariousness to the high potential for feeding competition. I provide the first data on association patterns and agonistic interactions of female chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) from the unusually large Ngogo community, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Ngogo females were less gregarious than males, but spent a mean of 64% of their time in association with ≥1 other females and as much time in all-female parties as they did alone. Further, female dyads associated nonrandomly and they formed associative cliques. Association levels within cliques were similar to those among the relatively gregarious West African chimpanzee females at Taï (Pan troglodytes verus) and among bonobo (P. paniscus) females. Agonistic interfemale interactions were extremely rare, and monthly mean party size and the numbers of anestrous females per party do not correlate significantly with fruit availability. Thus, Ngogo females maintained relatively high levels of gregariousness, but avoided detrimental feeding competition by preferentially associating with a small subset of other community females.     

Regional chronologies of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cedrela</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">fissilis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cedrela angustifolia</Emphasis> in three forest types and their relation to climate

Key message

Although tree-ring chronologies of Cedrela fissilis and Cedrela angustifolia showed a common climatic signal, local conditions influence growth, suggesting that forest guidelines should be appropriate to the species and context.

Abstract

Cedrela species are highly valued because of the quality of their timber. Understanding the behaviour of each different Cedrela species and their ecology is of importance to ensuring that forest harvesting and management do not endanger the survival of natural populations. These species grow in a wide range of environmental gradients and different types of forests in Bolivia. This study used dendrochronological methods to analyse growth–precipitation relationships of two Cedrela species coming from three locations with different environmental conditions: dry Chiquitano (Concepción), Chiquitano transitional Amazonian (Guarayos), and Bolivian-Tucuman montane forests (Postrervalle). The rainy season in all locations runs from October to April and the dry season runs from May to September. Twelve Cedrela fissilis specimens were sampled from dry Chiquitano, 11 Cedrela fissilis specimens from Chiquitano transitional Amazonian, and 30 Cedrela angustifolia specimens from Bolivian-Tucuman montane forests. The samples were crossdated and exhibited a common signal between trees from three sites, despite tree rings from the Chiquitano transitional Amazonian forest being narrower and displaying blurred bands of parenchyma in the boundaries. Significant inter-series correlation was found for the C. fissilis species series from dry Chiquitano with r = 0.261 (p < 0.01) and Chiquitano transitional Amazonian forests with r = 0.284 (p < 0.01), and for Cedrela angustifolia from Bolivian-Tucuman montane forests with r = 0.374 (p < 0.01). Mean annual growth was 2.07, 1.92, and 2.82 mm year^?1 at the three sites, respectively. Cedrela species from dry Chiquitano and Bolivian-Tucuman montane forests were sensitive to precipitation from October to April of the current growth year (wettest season) and to low temperatures from May to July of the current growth year (driest season). Samples from Chiquitano transitional Amazonian were more sensitive to precipitation during late rainy season (March, April, and May of the current growth year) and high temperatures during the rainy months (November–December). Growth differences between sites and species in response to climate variations and local conditions should be taken into account and handled with different forest management guidelines.

     

Phylogeny of members of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Frankia</Emphasis> genus based on <Emphasis Type="Italic">gyr</Emphasis>B, <Emphasis Type="Italic">nif</Emphasis>H and <Emphasis Type="Italic">gln</Emphasis>II sequences

To construct an evolutionary hypothesis for the genus Frankia, gyrB (encoding gyrase B), nifH (encoding nitrogenase reductase) and glnII (encoding glutamine synthetase II) gene sequences were considered for 38 strains. The overall clustering pattern among Frankia strains based on the three analyzed sequences varied among themselves and with the previously established 16S rRNA gene phylogeny and they did not reliably reflect clear evolution of the four discerned Frankia clusters (1, 2, 3 and 4). Based on concatenated gyrB, nifH and glnII, robust phylogenetic trees were observed with the three treeing methods (Maximum Likelihood, Parsimony and Neighbor-Joining) and supported by strong bootstrap and posterior probability values (>75%) for overall branching. Cluster 4 (non-infective and/or non-nitrogen-fixing Frankia) was positioned at a deeper branch followed by cluster 3 (Rhamnaceae and Elaeagnaceae infective Frankia), while cluster 2 represents uncultured Frankia microsymbionts of the Coriariaceae, Datiscaceae, Rosaceae and of Ceanothus sp. (Rhamnaceae); Cluster 1 (Betulaceae, Myricaceae and Casuarinaceae infective Frankia) appears to have diverged more recently. The present study demonstrates the utility of phylogenetic analyses based upon concatenated gyrB, nifH and glnII sequences to help resolve previously unresolved or poorly resolved nodes and will aid in describing species among the genus Frankia.