A Simple Method for In Vivo Expression Studies of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas axonopodis</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">citri</Emphasis>

A major problem in studying bacterial plant pathogens is obtaining the microorganism directly from the plant tissue to perform in vivo expression (protein or mRNA) analyses. Here we report an easy and fast protocol to isolate Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri directly from the host plant, in sufficient amounts to perform protein fingerprinting by 2-D gel electrophoresis as well as RNA expression assays. The protein profile obtained was very similar to that of X. axonopodis pv. citri grown in the presence of a leaf extract of Citrus sinensis; however, some differential proteins expressed in vivo were observed. Total RNA extraction revealed typical 16S and 23S bands in the agarose gel, and RT-PCR reactions using primers specific for genes of the bacterium confirmed the quality of the RNA preparation. Also, RT-PCR reactions using plant ribosomal primers were employed, and no amplification product was obtained, indicating that plant RNA is not present in the bacterium RNA sample.     

Populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas citri</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">mangiferaeindicae</Emphasis> from Asymptomatic Mango Leaves Are Primarily Endophytic

Terrestrial organic carbon is exported to freshwater systems where it serves as substrate for bacterial growth. Temporal variations in the terrigenous organic carbon support for aquatic bacteria are not well understood. In this paper, we demonstrate how the combined influence of landscape characteristics and hydrology can shape such variations. Using a 13-day bioassay approach, the production and respiration of bacteria were measured in water samples from six small Swedish streams (64° N, 19° E), draining coniferous forests, peat mires, and mixed catchments with typical boreal proportions between forest and mire coverage. Forest drainage supported higher bacterial production and higher bacterial growth efficiency than drainage from mires. The areal export of organic carbon was several times higher from mire than from forest at low runoff, while there was no difference at high flow. As a consequence, mixed streams (catchments including both mire and forest) were dominated by mire organic carbon with low support of bacterial production at low discharge situations but dominated by forest carbon supporting higher bacterial production at high flow. The stimulation of bacterial growth during high-flow episodes was a result of higher relative export of organic carbon via forest drainage rather than increased drainage of specific “high-quality” carbon pools in mire or forest soils.     

Proteome of the phytopathogen <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas citri</Emphasis> subsp. <Emphasis Type="Italic">citri</Emphasis>: a global expression profile

Background  

Citrus canker is a disease caused by Xantomonas citri subsp.citri (Xac), and has emerged as one of the major threats to the worldwide citrus crop because it affects all commercial citrus varieties, decreases the production and quality of the fruits and can spread rapidly in citrus growing areas. In this work, the first proteome of Xac was analyzed using two methodologies, two-dimensional liquid chromatography (2D LC) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS).     

The Oligopeptide Permease (Opp) of the Plant Pathogen <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas axonopodis</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">citri</Emphasis>

The oligopeptide permease (Opp), a protein-dependent ABC transporter, has been found in the genome of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac), but not in Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc). Sequence analysis indicated that 4 opp genes (oppA, oppB, oppC, oppD/F), located in a 33.8-kbp DNA fragment present only in the Xac genome, are arranged in an operon-like structure and share highest sequence similarities with Streptomyces roseofulvus orthologs. Nonetheless, analyses of the GC content, codon usage, and transposon positioning suggested that the Xac opp operon does not have an exogenous origin. The presence of a stop codon at one of the ATP-binding domains of OppD/F would render the uptake system nonfunctional, but detection of a single polycistronic mRNA and periplasmic OppA in actively growing bacteria suggests that the Opp permease is active and could contribute to the distinct nutritional requirements and host specificities of the two Xanthomonas species.     

Detection of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas oryzae</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">oryzae</Emphasis> in seeds using a specific TaqMan probe

Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae is the pathogen that causes bacterial leaf blight in rice. Bacterial leaf blight is the main cause for severe rice underproduction in many countries. However, with conventional methods it is difficult to quickly and reliably distinguish this pathogen from other closely related pathogenic bacteria, especially X. oryzae pv. oryzicola, the causal organism of bacterial leaf streak in rice. We have developed a novel and highly sensitive real-time method for the identification of this specific bacteria based on a TaqMan probe. This probe is designed to recognize the sequence of a putative siderophore receptor gene cds specific to X. oryzae pv. oryzae, and can be identified from either a bacterial culture or naturally infected rice seeds and leaves in only 2 h. The sensitivity of the method is 100 times higher than that of the current polymerase chain reaction (PCR) gel electrophoresis method for diagnosis.     

High-resolution mapping and gene prediction of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas Oryzae</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oryzae</Emphasis> resistance gene <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xa7</Emphasis>

Bacterial blight (BB) caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) is a devastating disease in rice worldwide. The resistance gene Xa7, which provides dominant resistance against the pathogen with avirulence (Avr) gene AvrXa7, has proved to be durably resistant to BB. A set of SSR markers were selected from the “gramene” database based on the Xa7 gene initial mapping region on chromosome 6. These markers were used to construct a high-resolution genetic map of the chromosomal region surrounding the Xa7 gene. An F₂ mapping population with 721 highly susceptible individuals derived from a cross between the near isogenic lines (NILs) IRBB7 and IR24 were constructed to localize the Xa7 gene. In a primary analysis with eleven polymorphic SSR markers, Xa7 was located in approximately the 0.28-cM region. To walk closer to the target gene, recombinant F₂ individuals were tested using newly developed STMS (sequence tagged microsatellite) markers. Finally, the Xa7 gene was mapped to a 0.21-cM interval between the markers GDSSR02 and RM20593. The Xa7-linked markers were landed on the reference sequence of cv. Nipponbare through bioinformatics analysis. A contig map corresponding to the Xa7 gene was constructed. The target gene was assumed to span an interval of approximately 118.5-kb which contained a total of fourteen genes released by the TIGR Genome Annotation Version 5.0. Candidate-gene analysis of Xa7 revealed that the fourteen genes encode novel domains that have no amino acid sequence similar to other cloned Xa(xa) genes. Shen Chen and Zhanghui Huang are contributed equally to this work.     

Identification of quantitative trait loci for resistance to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas campestris</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">campestris</Emphasis> in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassica rapa</Emphasis>

Resistance to six known races of black rot in crucifers caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Pammel) Dowson is absent or very rare in Brassica oleracea (C genome). However, race specific and broad-spectrum resistance (to type strains of all six races) does appear to occur frequently in other brassica genomes including B. rapa (A genome). Here, we report the genetics of broad spectrum resistance in the B. rapa Chinese cabbage accession B162, using QTL analysis of resistance to races 1 and 4 of the pathogen. A B. rapa linkage map comprising ten linkage groups (A01–A10) with a total map distance of 664 cM was produced, based on 223 AFLP bands and 23 microsatellites from a F₂ population of 114 plants derived from a cross between the B. rapa susceptible inbred line R-o-18 and B162. Interaction phenotypes of 125 F₂ plants were assessed using two criteria: the percentage of inoculation sites in which symptoms developed, and the severity of symptoms per plant. Resistance to both races was correlated and a cluster of highly significant QTL that explained 24–64% of the phenotypic variance was located on A06. Two additional QTLs for resistance to race 4 were found on A02 and A09. Markers closely linked to these QTL could assist in the transference of the resistance into different B. rapa cultivars or into B. oleracea.     

Quantitative Measurements of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas Oryzae</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oryzae</Emphasis> Distribution in Rice Using Fluorescent-Labeling

The rice host sensor, XA21, confers robust resistance to most strains of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), the casual agent of bacterial blight disease. Using in planta fluorescence imaging of Xoo strain PXO99Az expressing a green fluorescent protein (Xoo-gfp) we show that XA21 restricts Xoo spread at the point of infection. This noninvasive and quantitative method to measure spatial distribution of Xoo populations in planta facilitates detailed assessment of plant disease resistance.     

Structural Insights on Two Hypothetical Secretion Chaperones from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas axonopodis</Emphasis> pv<Emphasis Type="Italic">. citri</Emphasis>

Several Gram-negative bacterial pathogens have developed type III secretion systems (T3SSs) to deliver virulence proteins directly into eukaryotic cells in a process essential for many diseases. The type III secretion processes require customized chaperones with high specificity for binding partners, thus providing the secretion to occur. Due to the very low sequence similarities among secretion chaperones, annotation and discrimination of a great majority of them is extremely difficult and a task with low scores even if genes are encountered that codify for small (<20 kDa) proteins with low pI and a tendency to dimerise. Concerning about this, herein, we present structural features on two hypothetical T3SSs chaperones belonging to plant pathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri and suggest how low resolution models based on Small Angle X-ray Scattering patterns can provide new structural insights that could be very helpful in their analysis and posterior classification.     

Exploring the quantitative resistance to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudomonas syringae</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">phaseolicola</Emphasis> in common bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L.)

Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola is an important disease that causes halo blight in common bean. The genetic mechanisms underlying quantitative halo blight resistance are poorly understood in this species, as most disease studies have focused on qualitative resistance. The present work examines the genetic basis of quantitative resistance to the nine halo blight races in different organs (primary and trifoliate leaf, stem and pod) of an Andean recombinant inbred line (RIL) progeny. Using a multi-environment quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping approach, 76 and 101 main-effect and epistatic QTLs were identified, respectively. Most of the epistatic interactions detected were due to loci without detectable QTL additive main effects. Main and epistatic QTLs detected were mainly consistent across the environment conditions. The homologous genomic regions corresponding to 26 of the 76 main-effect detected QTLs were positive for the presence of resistance-associated gene cluster encoding nucleotide-binding and leucine-rich repeat (NL) proteins and known defence genes. Main-effect QTLs for resistance to races 3, 4 and 5 in leaf, stem and pod were located on chromosome 2 within a 3.01-Mb region, where a cluster of nine NL genes was detected. The NL gene Phvul.002G323300 is located in this region, which can be considered an important putative candidate gene for the non-organ-specific QTL identified here. The present research provides essential information not only for the better understanding of the plant-pathogen interaction but also for the application of genomic assisted breeding for halo blight resistance in common bean.     

Occurrence of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas axonopodis</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">phaseoli</Emphasis>, the causal agent of common bacterial blight disease,on seeds of common bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L.) in upper Egypt

Common bean seed lots collected from different seed dealers and Malawii agriculture station were screened for the presence of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli. In the laboratory the pathogen was isolated following the routine laboratory assay method, i.e. direct plating method using yeast extract-dextrose-calcium carbonate agar medium (YDC). Yellow, convex, mucoid colonies of Xanthomonas were consistently isolated on YDC from seed samples. The presumptive pathogen was confirmed by isolation on semiselective medium, such as mTBM and MD5A. Further, the pathogen was confirmed by biochemical, physiological and, finally, the pathogenicity tests. Five samples out of seven were positive for Xanthomonas. The isolates were found to cause common blight of 3-week-old common bean plants by 7 d after inoculation. Bacteria with the same characteristics as those inoculated were re-isolated from the infected plants.     

Effect of modified glucose catabolism on xanthan production in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas oryzae</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">oryzae</Emphasis>

In this study, the glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase gene (XOO2314) was inactivated in order to modulate the intracellular glucose 6-phosphate, and its effects on xanthan production in a wild-type strain of Xanthomonas oryzae were evaluated. The intracellular glucose 6-phosphate was increased from 17.6 to 99.4 μmol g⁻¹ (dry cell weight) in the gene-disrupted mutant strain. The concomitant increase in the glucose 6-phosphate was accompanied by an increase in xanthan production of up to 2.23 g l⁻¹ (culture medium). However, in defined medium supplemented with 0.4% glucose, the growth rate of the mutant strain was reduced to 52.9% of the wild-type level. Subsequently, when a family B ATP-dependent phosphofructokinase from Escherichia coli was overexpressed in the mutant strain, the growth rate was increased to 142.9%, whereas the yields of xanthan per mole of glucose remained approximately the same.     

Identification of genes differentially expressed in cauliflower associated with resistance to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas campestris</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">campestris</Emphasis>

Black rot, caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Pammel) Dowson (Xcc), is one of the most damaging diseases of cauliflower and other crucifers. In order to investigate the molecular resistance mechanisms and to find the genes related to black rot resistance in cauliflower, a suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) cDNA library was constructed using resistant line C712 and its susceptible near-isogenic line C731 as tester and driver, respectively. A total of 280 clones were obtained from the library by reverse northern blotting. Sequencing analysis and homology searching showed that these clones represent 202 unique sequences. The library included many defense/disease-resistant related genes, such as plant defensin gene PDF1.2, lipid transfer protein, thioredoxin h. Gene expression profiles of 12 genes corresponding to different functional categories were monitored by real-time RT-PCR. The results showed that the expression induction of these genes in the susceptible line C712 in response to Xcc was quicker and more intense, while in C731 the reaction was delayed and limited. Our results imply that these up-regulated genes might be involved in cauliflower responses against Xcc infection. Information obtained from this study could be used to understand the molecular mechanisms of disease response in cauliflower under Xcc stress.     

Fine genetic mapping of <Emphasis Type="Italic">xa24</Emphasis>, a recessive gene for resistance against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas oryzae</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">oryzae</Emphasis> in rice

Bacterial blight, caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), is the most devastating plant bacterial disease worldwide. Different bacterial blight resistance (R) genes confer race-specific resistance to different strains of Xoo. We fine mapped a fully recessive gene, xa24, for bacterial blight resistance to a 71-kb DNA fragment in the long arm of rice chromosome 2 using polymerase chain reaction-based molecular markers. The xa24 gene confers disease resistance at the seedling and adult stages. It mediates resistance to at least the Philippine Xoo races 4, 6 and 10 and Chinese Xoo strains Zhe173, JL691 and KS-1-21. Sequence analysis of the DNA fragment harboring the dominant (susceptible) allele of xa24 suggests that this gene should encode a novel protein that is not homologous to any known R proteins. These results will greatly facilitate the isolation and characterization of xa24. The markers will be convenient tools for marker-assisted selection of xa24 in breeding programs. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Enhanced fructooligosaccharides and inulinase production by a <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthomonas campestris</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">phaseoli</Emphasis> KM 24 mutant

Xanthomonas campestris pv phaseoli produced an extracellular endoinulinase (9.24 ± 0.03 U mL⁻¹) in an optimized medium comprising of 3% sucrose and 2.5% tryptone. X. campestris pv. phaseoli was further subjected to ethylmethanesulfonate mutagenesis and the resulting mutant, X. campestris pv. phaseoli KM 24 demonstrated inulinase production of 22.09 ± 0.03 U mL⁻¹ after 18 h, which was 2.4-fold higher than that of the wild type. Inulinase production by this mutant was scaled up using sucrose as a carbon source in a 5-L fermenter yielding maximum volumetric (21,865 U L⁻¹ h⁻¹) and specific (119,025 U g⁻¹ h⁻¹) productivities of inulinase after 18 h with an inulinase/invertase ratio of 2.6. A maximum FOS production of 11.9 g L⁻¹ h⁻¹ and specific productivity of 72 g g⁻¹ h⁻¹ FOS from inulin were observed in a fermenter, when the mutant was grown on medium containing 3% inulin and 2.5% tryptone. The detection of mono- and oligosaccharides in inulin hydrolysates by TLC analysis indicated the presence of an endoinulinase. This mutant has potential for large-scale production of inulinase and fructooligosaccharides.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>1<Emphasis Type="Italic">/copia</Emphasis>- and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>3<Emphasis Type="Italic">/gypsy</Emphasis>-like DNA sequences in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthus </Emphasis>species

Two repeated DNA sequences isolated from a partial genomic DNA library of Helianthus annuus, p HaS13 and p HaS211, were shown to represent portions of the int gene of a Ty3 /gypsy retroelement and of the RNase-Hgene of a Ty1 /copia retroelement, respectively. Southern blotting patterns obtained by hybridizing the two probes to BglII- or DraI-digested genomic DNA from different Helianthus species showed p HaS13 and p HaS211 were parts of dispersed repeats at least 8 and 7 kb in length, respectively, that were conserved in all species studied. Comparable hybridization patterns were obtained in all species with p HaS13. By contrast, the patterns obtained by hybridizing p HaS211 clearly differentiated annual species from perennials. The frequencies of p HaS13- and p HaS211-related sequences in different species were 4.3x10(4)-1.3x10(5) copies and 9.9x10(2)-8.1x10(3) copies per picogram of DNA, respectively. The frequency of p HaS13-related sequences varied widely within annual species, while no significant difference was observed among perennial species. Conversely, the frequency variation of p HaS211-related sequences was as large within annual species as within perennials. Sequences of both families were found to be dispersed along the length of all chromosomes in all species studied. However, Ty3 /gypsy-like sequences were localized preferentially at the centromeric regions, whereas Ty1/ copia-like sequences were less represented or absent around the centromeres and plentiful at the chromosome ends. These findings suggest that the two sequence families played a role in Helianthusgenome evolution and species divergence, evolved independently in the same genomic backgrounds and in annual or perennial species, and acquired different possible functions in the host genomes.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Galleria</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">mellonella</Emphasis> are Resistant to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pneumocystis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">murina</Emphasis> Infection

Studying Pneumocystis has proven to be a challenge from the perspective of propagating a significant amount of the pathogen in a facile manner. The study of several fungal pathogens has been aided by the use of invertebrate model hosts. Our efforts to infect the invertebrate larvae Galleria mellonella with Pneumocystis proved futile since P. murina neither caused disease nor was able to proliferate within G. mellonella. It did, however, show that the pathogen could be rapidly cleared from the host.