Plant models for animal pathogenesis

Several bacteria that are pathogenic to animals also infect plants. Mechanistic studies have proven that some human/animal pathogenic bacteria employ a similar subset of virulence determinants to elicit disease in animals, invertebrates and plants. Therefore, the results of plant infection studies are relevant to animal pathogenesis. This discovery has resulted in the development of convenient, cost-effective, and reliable plant infection models to study the molecular basis of infection by animal pathogens. Plant infection models provide a number of advantages in the study of animal pathogenesis. Using a plant model, mutations in animal pathogenic bacteria can easily be screened for putative virulence factors, a process which if done using existing animal infection models would be time-consuming and tedious. High-throughput screening of plants also provides the potential for unravelling the mechanisms by which plants resist animal pathogenic bacteria, and provides a means to discover novel therapeutic agents such as antibiotics and anti-infective compounds. In this review, we describe the developing technique of using plants as a model system to study Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus aureus pathogenesis, and discuss ways to use this new technology against disease warfare and other types of bioterrorism.     

Influenza virus infections and immunity: a review of human and animal models.

Studies of the pathogenesis of influenza infection have involved the extensive use of animal models. The development of the current concepts of immunity to influenza and of the contribution the secretory immune system makes toward the protection of mucosal surfaces against influenza infection would have been impossible without this use of animals. The pathology and clinical signs of influenza infection in both natural and experimental hosts, the advantages and disadvantages of the most common experimental influenza infection models, and the contribution of animal models to the understanding of local and systemic immunity to influenza infection are discussed.     

Animal models for the study of hepatitis B virus infection

Even with an effective vaccine, an estimated 240 million people are chronically infected with hepatitis B virus(HBV) worldwide. Current antiviral therapies,including interferon and nucleot(s)ide analogues,rarely cure chronic hepatitis B. Animal models are very crucial for understanding the pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis B and developing new therapeutic drugs or strategies. HBV can only infect humans and chimpanzees, with the use of chimpanzees in HBV research strongly restricted. Thus, most advances in HBV research have been gained using mouse models with HBV replication or infection or models with HBV-related hepadnaviral infection. This review summarizes the animal models currently available for the study of HBV infection.     

The value of primate models for studying human immunodeficiency virus pathogenesis

Abstract: Research on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is compromised by the obvious limitation in having for study only virus-infected individuals or those exposed to the virus. Steps involved in transmission or pathogenesis require planned experimentation. The identification of animal models of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) has therefore been helpful for evaluating phases of HIV pathogenesis. Of the seven subgenera of lentiviruses now recognized, two share the characteristics with HIV of a T cell tropism and the associated loss of CD4+ cells in the host associated with disease: the feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) (Table 1). The other animal lentiviruses grow best in macrophages and their infection generally reflects clinical sequellae of infection of this cell type. This review addresses those features of SIV, HIV, and SHIV infections of non-human primates that illustrate the importance of the animal models of AIDS.     

大蜡螟医学真菌感染模型的研究现况

在研究真菌感染中建立合适的真菌感染动物模型非常重要,大蜡螟幼虫作为昆虫动物模型之一,相比于其他的动物模型具有多种技术优势,目前已被广泛用于新型隐球菌、小孢子菌、红色毛癣菌、念珠菌属、暗色真菌、马尔尼菲青霉菌、黄曲霉和烟曲霉等多种致病菌的毒力、发病机制、免疫学改变、抗菌药物的开发以及系统性真菌感染的治疗等各个研究领域。研究表明大蜡螟感染模型研究结果与哺乳动物的结果相似,因此可以用大蜡螟来替代哺乳动物进行相关研究,从而减少了实验对哺乳动物的依赖性。     

植入物动物感染模型在葡萄球菌生物膜研究中的应用与进展

葡萄球菌生物膜引起的持续性感染及耐药性问题一直是临床治疗的难题,围绕生物膜形成分子机制的研究成为防治葡萄球菌生物膜相关感染的关键。建立葡萄球菌感染动物模型有利于研究体内生物膜形成、扩散、致病机制及药物的体内抗生物膜效果评估等。然而,动物体内生物膜形成的影响因素多,如动物种类、植入材料、接种部位、感染剂量、观察时间及评估方法等均会影响体内生物膜形成。结合本课题研究,系统地总结了近40年来葡萄球菌生物膜感染动物模型,重点综述动物模型的建立方法、适用范围及优缺点,为葡萄球菌生物膜感染的防治提供理论依据。     

马尔尼菲篮状菌感染动物模型的研究进展

马尔尼菲篮状菌Talaromyces marneffei是一种温度双相性致病真菌,原名马尔尼菲青霉Penicillium marneffei。马尔尼菲篮状菌病是由马尔尼菲篮状菌感染引起的一种严重的深部真菌病,主要流行于东南亚地区,在我国主要以南方地区多见,该病与HIV/AIDS的流行有高度相关性。近年来,随着艾滋病发病率的上升,马尔尼菲篮状菌病的发病率呈逐年上升趋势。该病发病隐匿,病死率高,但致病机制尚不明确。动物模型能够为疾病的发病机理和临床治疗等研究提供充分有力的证据,本文综述了马尔尼菲篮状菌感染动物模型的研究进展,对几种新型的动物模型进行了探讨。     

Method for inducing experimental pneumococcal meningitis in outbred mice

Background  

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading cause of bacterial meningitis. Pneumococcal meningitis is associated with the highest mortality among bacterial meningitis and it may also lead to neurological sequelae despite the use of antibiotic therapy. Experimental animal models of pneumococcal meningitis are important to study the pathogenesis of meningitis, the host immune response induced after infection, and the efficacy of novel drugs and vaccines.     

Infection of Mice,Ferrets, and Rhesus Macaques with a Clinical Mumps Virus Isolate

In recent years, many mumps outbreaks have occurred in vaccinated populations worldwide. The reasons for these outbreaks are not clear. Animal models are needed to investigate the causes of outbreaks and to understand the pathogenesis of mumps virus (MuV). In this study, we have examined the infection of three animal models with an isolate of mumps virus from a recent outbreak (MuV-IA). We have found that while both ferrets and mice generated humoral and cellular immune responses to MuV-IA infection, no obvious signs of illness were observed in these animals; rhesus macaques were the most susceptible to MuV-IA infection. Infection of rhesus macaques via both intranasal and intratracheal routes with MuV-IA led to the typical clinical signs of mumps 2 weeks to 4 weeks postinfection. However, none of the infected macaques showed any fever or neurologic signs during the experimental period. Mumps viral antigen was detected in parotid glands by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Rhesus macaques represent the best animal model for the study of mumps virus pathogenesis.     

Lessons from experimental Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the cause of enormous human morbidity and mortality each year. Although this bacterium can infect and cause disease in many animals, humans are the natural host. For the purposes of studying the pathogenesis of M. tuberculosis, as well as the protective and immunopathologic host responses against this pathogen, suitable animal models must be used. However, modeling the human infection and disease in animals can be difficult, and interpreting the data from animal models must be done carefully. In this paper, the animal models of tuberculosis are discussed, as well as the limitations and advantages of various models. In particular, the lessons we have learned about tuberculosis from the mouse models are highlighted. The careful and thoughtful use of animal models is essential to furthering our understanding of M. tuberculosis, and this knowledge will enhance the discovery of improved treatment and prevention strategies.     

SARS病毒感染动物模型

SARS-CoV感染动物模型的建立可加深对SARS病原学的了解和发病机制的研究,加速实验室诊断技术的建立、抗病毒药物的筛选和疫苗的开发,同时也有助于给该病一个更精确的定义。可以说SARS动物模型的建立,不但是SARS研究的瓶颈问题,其应用更是贯穿SARS研究的整个过程。到目前为止,已经报道有4种非人灵长类动物(恒河猴、食蟹猴、绒猴、非洲绿猴)和6种啮齿类动物(大鼠、小鼠、豚鼠、田鼠、仓鼠、转基因鼠),以及雪貂、家猫等可以作为SARS动物模型用于实验研究,并已经开始利用动物模型进行疫苗和药物的安全性和有效性评价。本文就已报道的各类SARS动物模型进行综述,并根据动物模型和SARS患者的比对,提出动物模型建立的技术要点。     

Recent Advances in Animal Models of Zika Virus Infection

An infection by Zika virus(ZIKV), a mosquito-borne flavivirus, broke out in South American regions in 2015, and recently showed a tendency of spreading to North America and even worldwide. ZIKV was first detected in 1947 and only 14 human infection cases were reported until 2007. This virus was previously observed to cause only mild flu-like symptoms.However, recent ZIKV infections might be responsible for the increasing cases of neurological disorders such as GuillainBarre′ syndrome and congenital defects, including newborn microcephaly. Therefore, researchers have established several animal models to study ZIKV transmission and pathogenesis, and test therapeutic candidates. This review mainly summarizes the reported animal models of ZIKV infection, including mice and non-human primates.     

结核病动物模型研究进展

结核病是由结核分枝杆菌感染引起的传染病,是危害人类健康的主要传染病之一。动物模型已经成为研究人类传染病的标准化工具。虽然对于结核分枝杆菌而言并没有真正意义的动物资源,但由于不同种类的动物,对分枝杆菌的敏感性不一样,因此可以成为结核病研究的有利工具。结核病最常用的实验动物模型包括小鼠、兔和豚鼠。每种动物有其自身特点,但并不能完全模拟人类疾病。通过建立结核病的动物模型,可以大大增加我们对疾病的病因、毒力和发病机制的理解。除了这三种模型外,非人灵长类也常被用于结核病的研究。本文总结了这几种结核病模型的研究状况。     

结核分枝杆菌感染实验模型

结核分枝杆菌是引起人结核病的主要病原,全世界约有1/3人口感染结核分枝杆菌。尽管该病原可感染并引起许多动物疾病,但人类是其中心宿主。为研究结核分枝杆菌的致病机理及宿主对本病原的保护性和免疫病理学反应,选择合适的动物模型非常必要。本文阐述了结核病研究中常用的实验模型及各种模型的优缺点。实验模型的合理应用将促进我们对结核病的认识,从中获取的资料将有助于我们发现更好的预防和治疗方案。     

Infection of humanized mice with a novel phlebovirus presented pathogenic features of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome

Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) is a tick-borne emerging phlebovirus with high mortality rates of 6.0 to 30%. SFTSV infection is characterized by high fever, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, hemorrhage and multiple organ failures. Currently, specific therapies and vaccines remain elusive. Suitable small animal models are urgently needed to elucidate the pathogenesis and evaluate the potential drug and vaccine for SFTSV infection. Previous models presented only mild or no pathogenesis of SFTS, limiting their applications in SFTSV infection. Therefore, it is an urgent need to develop a small animal model for the investigation of SFTSV pathogenesis and evaluation of therapeutics. In the current report, we developed a SFTSV infection model based on the HuPBL-NCG mice that recapitulates many pathological characteristics of SFTSV infection in humans. Virus-induced histopathological changes were identified in spleen, lung, kidney, and liver. SFTSV was colocalized with macrophages in the spleen and liver, suggesting that the macrophages in the spleen and liver could be the principle target cells of SFTSV. In addition, histological analysis showed that the vascular endothelium integrity was severely disrupted upon viral infection along with depletion of platelets. In vitro cellular assays further revealed that SFTSV infection increased the vascular permeability of endothelial cells by promoting tyrosine phosphorylation and internalization of the adhesion molecule vascular endothelial (VE)–cadherin, a critical component of endothelial integrity. In addition, we found that both virus infection and pathogen-induced exuberant cytokine release dramatically contributed to the vascular endothelial injury. We elucidated the pathogenic mechanisms of hemorrhage syndrome and developed a humanized mouse model for SFTSV infection, which should be helpful for anti-SFTSV therapy and pathogenesis study.     

Use of Temperature for Standardizing the Progression of Francisella tularensis in Mice

The study of infectious agents, their pathogenesis, the host response and the evaluation of newly developed countermeasures often requires the use of a living system. Murine models are frequently used to undertake such investigations with the caveat that non-biased measurements to assess the progression of infection are underutilized. Instead, murine models predominantly rely on symptomology exhibited by the animal to evaluate the state of the animal''s health and to determine when euthanasia should be performed. In this study, we used subcutaneous temperature as a non-subjective measurement to follow and compare infection in mice inoculated with Francisella tularensis, a Gram-negative pathogen that produces an acute and fatal illness in mice. A reproducible temperature pattern defined by three temperature phases (normal, febrile and hypothermic) was identified in all mice infected with F. tularensis, regardless of the infecting strain. More importantly and for the first time a non-subjective, ethical, and easily determined surrogate endpoint for death based on a temperature, termed drop point, was identified and validated with statistical models. In comparative survival curve analyses for F. tularensis strains with differing virulence, the drop point temperature yielded the same results as those obtained using observed time to death. Incorporation of temperature measurements to evaluate F. tularensis was standardized based on statistical models to provide a new level of robustness for comparative analyses in mice. These findings should be generally applicable to other pathogens that produce acute febrile disease in animal models and offers an important tool for understanding and following the infection process.     

Nonprimate models of congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection: gaining insight into pathogenesis and prevention of disease in newborns

Congenital and perinatal infections with cytomegalovirus (CMV) are responsible for considerable short- and long- term morbidity in infants. CMV is the most common congenital viral infection in the developed world, and is a common cause of neurodevelopmental injury, including mental retardation and sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). Antiviral therapy has been shown to be valuable in ameliorating the severity of SNHL, but CMV disease control in newborns ultimately depends on successful development of a vaccine. Because CMVs are extremely species specific, preclinical evaluation of vaccines must be performed in animal models using the appropriate CMV of the animal being studied. Several small animal models available for CMV vaccine and pathogenesis research are described. The discussion focuses on the guinea pig model because guinea pig cytomegalovirus (GPCMV), which crosses the placenta and causes infection in utero, is uniquely useful. Examination of vaccines in the GPCMV and other nonprimate models should provide insights into the determinants of the host response that protect the fetus, and may help to prioritize potential vaccine strategies for use in human clinical trials related to this important public health problem.     

HBV转基因小鼠--乙型肝炎研究的重要工具

HBV感染具有严格的种属特异性和组织亲嗜性,所以可用于研究的动物模型很少。随着转基因技术的出现和发展,人们通过研制转基因动物模型来研究病毒致病机理。把HBV的DNA或其片段转入小鼠受精卵建立起来的HBV转基因小鼠,已被广泛地应用于乙型肝炎的研究中,主要体现在以下3个方面：研究HBV的致病机制、与肝细胞癌的关系及寻找、评价治疗乙肝的方法。     

Animal models of diabetic retinopathy: doors to investigate pathogenesis and potential therapeutics

Effective and validated animal models are valuable to investigate the pathogenesis and potential therapeutics for human diseases. There is much concern for diabetic retinopathy (DR) in that it affects substantial number of working population all around the world, resulting in visual deterioration and social deprivation. In this review, we discuss animal models of DR based on different species of animals from zebrafish to monkeys and prerequisites for animal models. Despite criticisms on imprudent use of laboratory animals, we hope that animal models of DR will be appropriately utilized to deepen our understanding on the pathogenesis of DR and to support our struggle to find novel therapeutics against catastrophic visual loss from DR.     

从动物模型看乙型病毒性肝炎致病机制的研究进展

乙型肝炎病毒(Hepatitis B virus,HBV)是通过血液和体液传播的嗜肝DNA病毒,尽管有有效的预防疫苗,乙型病毒性肝炎仍是我国乃至全球人类健康的重大威胁。HBV的易感宿主只局限于人以及黑猩猩等灵长类动物,HBV感染性疾病的研究遇到很大困难。多种小动物研究模型的建立,使我们对HBV感染致病机制的认识有了很大进步,包括:分子病毒学特征、在感染细胞中生命周期、机体的抗病毒免疫反应、肝脏病变的免疫病理机制等。但是,由于已有动物模型的种种限制,我们对HBV感染及乙型肝炎发生和发展的认识还远远不够,目前除了抗病毒治疗外,还没有有效地治疗慢性乙肝的方法。建立能够真实反映临床HBV感染、乙肝发生和进展过程的纯系小鼠模型,对于我们全面深入地理解HBV感染的侵入机制、宿主和病毒之间相互作用,以及发展预防和治疗HBV感染的新方法都具有非常重要的意义。