补体系统的进化

补体系统中的大多数组织成员有着特征性的结构域及其特有的结构域组合形式,这使得我们可以利用基因组数据研究分析补体系统的起源与进化。综合文献报道和数据分析,发现补体系统的某些结构域存在于低等的后口动物,甚至在原口动物中也有大量分布,但哺乳动物中特有的结构域组合方式只在后口动物中存在。这些揭示了补体系统拥有比适应性免疫更早的起源,完善的补体系统可能形成在后口动物中的无脊椎动物,而更为原始的补体系统雏形则在原口动物中已经出现。就近些年的研究成果作一综述,以期系统阐明补体系统的起源与进化。     

糖类模式识别分子纤维胶凝蛋白与补体凝集素活化途径

纤维胶凝蛋白(ficolin)是一组存在于人、猪、小鼠和海鞘等动物体内,含有胶原样结构域和纤维蛋白原样结构域的糖蛋白。它们的分子结构相似。多形成寡聚体,其基因结构和氨基酸序列有一定的同源性。Ficolin与MBL的功能相似,识别并特异结合某些糖类,所以它们可能是一种重要的糖类模式识别分子。血清中的ficolin结合病原体表面的糖类配体后,通过调理吞噬作用及凝集素途径激活补体,是天然免疫中的效应分子。本文主要介绍了纤维胶凝蛋白(ficolin)的分子结构、生物学特性及其补体活化的凝集素途径。     

综述: 补体系统及其糖基化

补体系统是固有免疫系统的重要组成部分,同时也是连接固有免疫和适应性免疫系统的重要桥梁．补体系统由30多种蛋白质组成,且其中绝大多数都经过糖基化修饰．近年来对补体系统的研究,不断揭示出补体系统在抗击病原微生物入侵和维持有机体生理稳态过程中发挥着重要作用．然而补体系统需要严格的调控,不论是激活不足、抑或是过度激活都可能引起疾病的发生．本文概述了近年来对于补体系统的激活、调控和功能研究的最新进展,并首次从糖生物学角度对补体系统蛋白质组分的糖链结构及糖链对相应蛋白质功能的影响进行了综述和小结．     

蛋白质PX结构域的结构和功能

本文重点介绍了近年不断发现的许多蛋白质结构中含有一个特异的结构域（hox homolog)－PX结构域。蛋白质通过PX结构域与膜肌醇磷脂结合靶蛋白质结合到细胞膜上,然后发挥蛋白质的各自功能。现已鉴定含PX结构域的蛋白质约有100多种,这些蛋白质参与蛋白质转运和信号转导。     

C1q蛋白家族的结构、分布、分类和功能

C1q蛋白家族由众多含C1q结构域的蛋白组成, 从细菌到高等哺乳动物中都有分布。这类蛋白由一条信号肽、胶原样区(Collage-like region, CLR)和C1q球状结构域(Globular C1q domain, gC1q)组成。C1q蛋白家族根据其结构特点, 可分为三大类分子：C1q、C1q-like和ghC1q。C1q是补体经典途径的起始分子, 能够识别免疫复合物, 启动补体系统经典途径; 此外, 作为一种模式识别受体分子(Pattern recognition receptor, PRR), 它可以结合种类繁多的配体。C1q-like蛋白的结构类似于C1q分子, 含有CLR和gC1q结构域, 在水蛭中参与神经系统的修复, 在脊椎动物中实现从凝集素到免疫球蛋白结合分子的功能转变, 参与补体系统的激活。ghC1q蛋白只具有gC1q结构域和一段短的N末端序列, 包括分泌型蛋白(sghC1q)和非分泌型蛋白(cghC1q)。sghC1q在无脊椎动物固有免疫系统中发挥重要作用; 脊椎动物中的sghC1q可作为一类新型跨神经元调节因子, 在大脑的许多区域调节突触发育和突触可塑性。cghC1q基因最早可追溯至芽孢杆菌属的细菌中, 具有典型的gC1q果冻卷结构, 说明gC1q结构域有着非常悠久的进化历程且结构高度保守。文章对C1q蛋白家族的结构、分布、分类以及功能进行综述, 以期为从事该领域研究的科研人员提供有益参考。     

补体调节蛋白作为靶向补体抑制剂的研究进展

补体是机体免疫系统的重要组成部分,补体系统的过度激活,会直接或间接地导致机体自身组织损伤。补体抑制剂是一类具有调节补体功能的调节蛋白,能够抑制补体过度激活,减轻机体的免疫损伤。将补体抑制剂应用于某些疾病的治疗已经有十多年的历史,但人们已经认识到补体的某些抑制物由于其特异性不强,可能会导致机体系统性的补体抑制,产生副作用。目前,通过利用具有靶向作用的补体抑制剂来抑制补体级联反应中特定蛋白的功能或干扰中性粒细胞同血管内皮细胞的黏附等在许多动物模型中已获得了成功,其中有一些研究成果已经开始应用于临床。本文对补体调节蛋白家族中部分成员作为靶向补体抑制剂的研究进展作一综述。     

哺乳动物中Kelch超家族蛋白的结构与功能

在不同生物体,如病毒、植物、真菌和哺乳动物中,几百种含Kelch构象的蛋白质已经被鉴定出来了,但大部分此类蛋白质的功能未知.而在哺乳动物中,已经有接近41种Kelch蛋白被报道.这些蛋白质在体内参与了很多重要的生理过程.根据Kelch蛋白的域结构不同,把这些哺乳动物中的Kelch蛋白分成了三类(BTB/Kelch蛋白,只含有Kelch结构域的蛋白质,及含其他结构域的Kelch蛋白),并把其已知的功能大致划分为5类:介导蛋白质-蛋白质的相互作用、参与蛋白质降解、信号传导、胞外功能及其他等.另外还认为Keap 1的Kelch结构域其晶体结构应该是研究哺乳动物Kelch蛋白的一个很好的参考模型.     

眼镜蛇毒中一个新的抗补体蛋白的分离纯化和性质研究

免疫性疾病、急性肺损伤、缺血再灌注损伤等病征的发生与补体异常激活密切相关。抗补体药物研究是新药开发的热点之一。本研究旨在从中华眼镜蛇毒中发现并分离纯化获得新的抗补体活性蛋白质,并对其理化性质和生物学活性加以研究。在抗补体活性追踪的指导下,采用蛋白质层析技术对眼镜蛇毒进行分离纯化;利用MALDI-TOF-MS、SDS-PAGE和葡聚糖凝胶过滤法测定目标蛋白质的纯度及分子量;等电聚焦凝胶电泳法测定其等电点;采用Edman降解法测定目标蛋白质的N-端氨基酸序列;测定目标蛋白质对补体经典途径和旁路途径的抑制活性以及可能的机制;采用MTT法和SRB法检测目标蛋白质对肿瘤细胞的杀伤作用;测定目标蛋白质对多种来源红细胞的溶血活性;采用KB平板扩散法检测抗菌活性。结果表明,通过SP Sephadex C-25阳离子交换层析和RP-HPLC C18反相层析,从中华眼镜蛇毒中分离纯化获得一个均一的抗补体蛋白质,将其命名为CTX-CI。还原性SDS-PAGE测得CTX-CI的表观分子量为12.7 kD,凝胶过滤法测得分子量为9.7 kD,MALDI-TOF-MS测得精确分子质量为7.0 kD;变性条件下测得CTX-CI的等电点为9-81;N-端氨基酸序列为LKCH。相关活性测定结果表明,CTX-CI能有效抑制人血清补体经典途径,其IC50为0.046 g/L,但对补体旁路途径无明显抑制作用;机制研究表明,CTX-CI能抑制补体经典途径C3转化酶的形成。同时,CTX-CI对肿瘤细胞株A549、K562和MCF-7细胞表现出抑制作用,其IC50分别为0.32 g/L、0.58 g/L、0.63 g/L;对豚鼠红细胞有轻微的溶血作用;能抑制枯草芽孢杆菌和藤黄微球菌的生长。综上所述,本研究从中华眼镜蛇毒中分离纯化出一个新的抗补体蛋白质CTX-CI,其理化性质和生物学活性表明其属于细胞毒素,CTX-CI能明显抑制补体经典途径,其机制与抑制经典途径C3转化酶的形成有关。     

BAR结构域蛋白质的功能

近期对果蝇双载蛋白(amphiphysin)BAR结构域晶体结构的报道,使得BAR结构域研究成为热点。虽然在序列水平上保守性较低,但双载蛋白的BAR结构域与Arfaptin 2的GTP酶结合结构域在结构上极为相似。通过对两种蛋白质的BAR结构域同源序列进行检索分析,发现了大量含BAR结构域相关蛋白质。研究发现,BAR结构域蛋白质多数都参与细胞内物质转运及胞吞作用;BAR结构域不仅可以通过其二聚化基元感知和诱导膜的弯曲,而且某些蛋白质的BAR结构域还具有与小GTP酶结合的功能。     

革兰氏阳性菌蛋白结构域特征分析

结构域是蛋白质序列中具有独特功能的区域,这些区域影响着蛋白质的功能,因此研究结构域的特征对于了解蛋白质功能很有帮助。构建革兰氏阳性菌蛋白质4个亚细胞位置数据集,对该数据集中的蛋白质进行结构域的搜索和功能分析,找到了革兰氏阳性菌的细胞壁、细胞质、细胞膜和细胞外四个蛋白质区域的结构域。分析这四个位置结构域的功能并在PDBsum数据库中找到了这些结构域的二级结构和三级结构图,利用这些特征信息可以更深入的了解革兰氏阳性菌蛋白质的结构和功能。     

Structural stability and heat-induced conformational change of two complement inhibitors: C4b-binding protein and factor H

The complement inhibitors C4b-binding protein (C4BP) and factor H (FH) both consist of complement control protein (CCP) domains. Here we examined the secondary structure of both proteins by circular dichroism and Fourier-transform infrared technique at temperatures ranging from 30 degrees C-90 degrees C. We found that predominantly beta-sheet structure of both proteins was stable up to 70 degrees C, and that a reversible conformational change toward alpha-helix was apparent at temperatures ranging from 70 degrees C to 90 degrees C. The ability of both proteins to inhibit complement was not impaired after incubation at 95 degrees C, exposure to extreme pH conditions, and storage at room temperature for several months. Similar remarkable stability was previously observed for vaccinia virus control protein (VCP), which is also composed of CCP domains; it therefore seems to be a general property of CCP-containing proteins. A typical CCP domain has a hydrophobic core, which is wrapped in beta-sheets and stabilized by two disulphide bridges. How the CCP domains tolerate harsh conditions is unclear, but it could be due to a combination of high content of prolines, hydrophobic residues, and the presence of two disulphide bridges within each domain. These findings are of interest because CCP-containing complement inhibitors have been proposed as clinical agents to be used to control unwanted complement activation that contributes to many diseases.     

Immunophysical properties and prediction of activities for vaccinia virus complement control protein and smallpox inhibitor of complement enzymes using molecular dynamics and electrostatics

We present immunophysical modeling for VCP, SPICE, and three mutants using MD simulations and Poisson-Boltzmann-type electrostatic calculations. VCP and SPICE are homologous viral proteins that control the complement system by imitating, structurally and functionally, natural regulators of complement activation. VCP and SPICE consist of four CCP modules connected with short flexible loops. MD simulations demonstrate that the rather complex modules of VCP/SPICE and their mutants exhibit a high degree of intermodular spatial mobility, which is affected by surface mutations. Electrostatic calculations using snapshots from the MD trajectories demonstrate variable spatial distribution of the electrostatic potentials, which suggests dynamic binding properties. We use covariance analysis to identify correlated modular oscillations. We also use electrostatic similarity indices to cluster proteins with common electrostatic properties. Our results are compared with experimental data to form correlations between the overall positive electrostatic potential of VCP/SPICE with binding and activity. We show how these correlations can be used to predict binding and activity properties. This work is expected to be useful for understanding the function of native CCP-containing regulators of complement activation and receptors and for the design of antiviral therapeutics and complement inhibitors.     

Proteolytic Processing of the Extracellular Scaffolding Protein LEV-9 Is Required for Clustering Acetylcholine Receptors

Correct positioning of neurotransmitter-gated receptors at postsynapses is essential for synaptic transmission. At Caenorhabditis elegans neuromuscular junctions, clustering of levamisole-sensitive acetylcholine receptors (L-AChRs) requires the muscle-secreted scaffolding protein LEV-9, a multidomain factor containing complement control protein (CCP) modules. Here we show that LEV-9 needs to be cleaved at its C terminus to exert its function. LEV-9 cleavage is not required for trafficking nor secretion but directly controls scaffolding activity. The cleavage site is evolutionarily conserved, and post-translational cleavage ensures the structural and functional decoupling between different isoforms encoded by the lev-9 gene. Data mining indicates that most human CCP-containing factors are likely cleaved C-terminally from CCP tandems, suggesting that not only domain architectures but also cleavage location can be conserved in distant architecturally related proteins.     

Backbone dynamics of complement control protein (CCP) modules reveals mobility in binding surfaces

The regulators of complement activation (RCA) are critical to health and disease because their role is to ensure that a complement-mediated immune response to infection is proportionate and targeted. Each protein contains an uninterrupted array of from four to 30 examples of the very widely occurring complement control protein (CCP, or sushi) module. The CCP modules mediate specific protein-protein and protein-carbohydrate interactions that are key to the biological function of the RCA and, paradoxically, provide binding sites for numerous pathogens. Although structural and mutagenesis studies of CCP modules have addressed some aspects of molecular recognition, there have been no studies of the role of molecular dynamics in the interaction of CCP modules with their binding partners. NMR has now been used in the first full characterization of the backbone dynamics of CCP modules. The dynamics of two individual modules-the 16th of the 30 modules of complement receptor type 1 (CD35), and the N-terminal module of membrane cofactor protein (CD46)-as well as their solution structures, are compared. Although both examples share broadly similar three-dimensional structures, many structurally equivalent residues exhibit different amplitudes and timescales of local backbone motion. In each case, however, regions of the module-surface implicated by mutagenesis as sites of interactions with other proteins include several mobile residues. This observation suggests further experiments to explore binding mechanisms and identify new binding sites.     

Prediction of the Tertiary Structure of the Complement Control Protein Module

Complement control protein (CCP) modules, or short consensus repeats (SCR), exist in a wide variety of complement and adhesion proteins, principally the selectins. We have predicted the three-dimensional structure of a CCP module based upon secondary structural information derived by two-dimensional NMR [Barlow et al. (1991), Biochemistry 30, 997–1004]. Accordingly, the CCP is predicted to contain seven -strands with extensive hydrogen-bonding interactions, and shows a compact, globular structure. Comparison of this model to the X-ray structure of a kringle domain suggests that the CCP unit is more compact than a kringle structure, and that despite their similarities in size and disulfide bond format, the two are not homologous. Although the function of CCP domains is unknown, it is hoped that the structural model presented herein will facilitate further inquiry into how they contribute to so many systems of biological importance.     

Structural investigation of C4b-binding protein by molecular modeling: Localization of putative binding sites

C4b-binding protein (C4BP) contributes to the regulation of the classical pathway of the complement system and plays an important role in blood coagulation. The main human C4BP isoform is composed of one β-chain and seven α-chains essentially built from three and eight complement control protein (CCP) modules, respectively, followed by a nonrepeat carboxy-terminal region involved in polymerization of the chains. C4BP is known to interact with heparin, C4b, complement factor I, serum amyloid P component, streptococcal Arp and Sir proteins, and factor VIII/VIIIa via its α-chains and with protein S through its β-chain. The principal aim of the present study was to localize regions of C4BP involved in the interaction with C4b, Arp, and heparin. For this purpose, a computer model of the 8 CCP modules of C4BP α-chain was constructed, taking into account data from previous electron microscopy (EM) studies. This structure was investigated in the context of known and/or new experimental data. Analysis of the α-chain model, together with monoclonal antibody studies and heparin binding experiments, suggests that a patch of positively charged residues, at the interface between the first and second CCP modules, plays an important role in the interaction between C4BP and C4b/Arp/Sir/heparin. Putative binding sites, secondary-structure prediction for the central core, and an overall reevaluation of the size of the C4BP molecule are also presented. An understanding of these intermolecular interactions should contribute to the rational design of potential therapeutic agents aiming at interfering specifically some of these protein–protein interactions. Proteins 31:391–405, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Immunophysical exploration of C3d-CR2(CCP1-2) interaction using molecular dynamics and electrostatics

The formation of the complex between the d-fragment of the complement component C3 (C3d) and the modular complement receptor-2 (CR2) is important for cross-linking foreign antigens with surface-bound antibodies and C3d on the surface of B cells. The first two modules of CR2, complement control protein modules (CCPs), participate in non-bonded interactions with C3d. We have used computational methods to analyze the dynamic and electrostatic properties of the C3d-CR2(CCP1-2) complex. The interaction between C3d and CR2 is known to depend on pH and ionic strength. Also, the intermodular mobility of the CR2 modules has been questioned before. We performed a 10 ns molecular dynamics simulation to generate a relaxed structure from crystal packing effects for the C3d-CR2(CCP1-2) complex and to study the energetics of the C3d-CR2(CCP1-2) association. The MD simulation suggests a tendency for intermodular twisting in CR2(CCP1-2). We propose a two-step model for recognition and binding of C3d with CR2(CCP1-2), driven by long and short/medium-range electrostatic interactions. We have calculated the matrix of specific short/medium-range pairwise electrostatic free energies of interaction involved in binding and in intermodular communications. Electrostatic interactions may mediate allosteric effects important for C3d-CR2(CCP1-2) association. We present calculations for the pH and ionic strength-dependence of C3d-CR2(CCP1-2) ionization free energies, which are in overall agreement with experimental binding data. We show how comparison of the calculated and experimental data allows for the decomposition of the contributions of electrostatic from other effects in association. We critically compare predicted stabilities for several mutants of the C3d-CR2(CCP1-2) complex with the available experimental data for binding ability. Finally, we propose that CR2(CCP1-2) is capable of assuming a large array of intermodular topologies, ranging from closed V-shaped to open linear states, with similar recognition properties for C3d, but we cannot exclude an additional contact site with C3d.     

The structure of MBL-associated serine protease-2 reveals that identical substrate specificities of C1s and MASP-2 are realized through different sets of enzyme-substrate interactions

A family of serine proteases mediates the proteolytic cascades of several defense mechanisms in vertebrates, such as the complement system, blood coagulation and fibrinolysis. These proteases usually form large complexes with other glycoproteins. Their common features are their modular structures and restricted substrate specificities. The lectin pathway of complement, where mannose-binding lectin (MBL) recognizes the carbohydrate structures on pathogens, is activated by mannose-binding lectin-associated serine protease-2 (MASP-2). We present the 2.25A resolution structure of the catalytic fragment of MASP-2 encompassing the second complement control protein module (CCP2) and the serine protease (SP) domain. The CCP2 module stabilizes the structure of the SP domain as demonstrated by differential scanning calorimetry measurements. The asymmetric unit contains two molecules with different CCP-SP domain orientations, reflecting increased modular flexibility at the CCP2/SP joint. This flexibility may partly explain the ability of the MASP-2 dimer to perform all of its functions alone, whereas the same functions are mediated by the much larger C1r2-C1s2 tetramer in the C1 complex of the classical pathway. The main scaffold of the MASP-2 SP domain is chymotrypsin-like. Eight surface loops determine the S1 and other subsite specificities. Surprisingly, some surface loops of MASP-2, e.g. loop 1 and loop 2, which form the S1 pocket are similar to those of trypsin, and show significant differences if compared with those of C1s, indicating that the nearly identical substrate specificities of C1s and MASP-2 are realized through different sets of enzyme-substrate interactions.     

Regulators of complement activity mediate inhibitory mechanisms through a common C3b‐binding mode

Regulators of complement activation (RCA) inhibit complement‐induced immune responses on healthy host tissues. We present crystal structures of human RCA (MCP, DAF, and CR1) and a smallpox virus homolog (SPICE) bound to complement component C3b. Our structural data reveal that up to four consecutive homologous CCP domains (i–iv), responsible for inhibition, bind in the same orientation and extended arrangement at a shared binding platform on C3b. Large sequence variations in CCP domains explain the diverse C3b‐binding patterns, with limited or no contribution of some individual domains, while all regulators show extensive contacts with C3b for the domains at the third site. A variation of ~100° rotation around the longitudinal axis is observed for domains binding at the fourth site on C3b, without affecting the overall binding mode. The data suggest a common evolutionary origin for both inhibitory mechanisms, called decay acceleration and cofactor activity, with variable C3b binding through domains at sites ii, iii, and iv, and provide a framework for understanding RCA disease‐related mutations and immune evasion.     

Use of time-resolved FRET to validate crystal structure of complement regulatory complex between C3b and factor H (N terminus)

Structural knowledge of interactions amongst the ～ 40 proteins of the human complement system, which is central to immune surveillance and homeostasis, is expanding due primarily to X‐ray diffraction of co‐crystallized proteins. Orthogonal evidence, in solution, for the physiological relevance of such co‐crystal structures is valuable since intermolecular affinities are generally weak‐to‐medium and inter‐domain mobility may be important. In this current work, Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) was used to investigate the 10 μM K_D (210 kD) complex between the N‐terminal region of the soluble complement regulator, factor H (FH1‐4), and the key activation‐specific complement fragment, C3b. Using site‐directed mutagenesis, seven cysteines were introduced individually at potentially informative positions within the four CCP modules comprising FH1‐4, then used for fluorophore attachment. C3b possesses a thioester domain featuring an internal cycloglutamyl cysteine thioester; upon hydrolysis this yields a free thiol (Cys988) that was also fluorescently tagged. Labeled proteins were functionally active as cofactors for cleavage of C3b to iC3b except for FH1‐4(Q40C) where conjugation with the fluorophore likely abrogated interaction with the protease, factor I. Time‐resolved FRET measurements were undertaken to explore interactions between FH1‐4 and C3b in fluid phase and under near‐physiological conditions. These experiments confirmed that, as in the cocrystal structure, FH1‐4 binds to C3b with CCP module 1 furthest from, and CCP module 4 closest to, the thioester domain, placing subsequent modules of FH near to any surface to which C3b is attached. The data do not rule out flexibility of the thioester domain relative to the remainder of the complex.