Maternal feeding strategies, child eating behaviors, and child BMI in low-income African-American preschoolers

Objective: To test the hypothesis that low‐income African‐American preschool children would have a higher BMI if their mothers reported greater “restriction” and “control” in feeding and if mothers reported that children showed greater “food responsiveness” and “desire to drink.” In addition, to test whether higher maternal “pressure to eat” would be associated with lower child BMI. Research Methods and Procedures: A questionnaire was completed by 296 low‐income African‐American mothers of preschool children. It assessed three constructs on maternal feeding strategies (“restriction,” “pressure to eat,” and “control”) and two on child eating behaviors (“food responsiveness” and “desire to drink”). Children's BMI was measured, and mothers’ BMI was self‐reported. Results: The mean (standard deviation) BMI z‐score of the children was 0.34 (1.5), and 44% of the mothers were obese (BMI ≥30 kg/m²). Only maternal “pressure to eat” had a significant overall association with child BMI z‐score (r = ?0.16, p < 0.01). Both maternal “restriction” and “control” were positively associated with children's BMI z‐score in the case of obese mothers (r = 0.20, p = 0.03 and r = 0.24, p = 0.007, respectively), but this was not so in the case of non‐obese mothers (r = ?0.16, p = 0.05 and r = ?0.07, p = 0.39, respectively). Discussion: Among low‐income African Americans, the positive association between maternal restriction and control in feeding and their preschoolers’ BMI was limited to obese mothers. Relations between parent feeding strategies and child weight status in this population may differ on the basis of maternal weight status.     

Influence of parents' eating behaviors and child feeding practices on children's weight status

Objective : To investigate the effects of mothers’ and fathers’ eating behaviors, child feeding practices, and BMI on percentage body fat and BMI in their children. Research Methods and Procedures : Four hundred fifty‐eight parents (239 mothers, 219 fathers) were asked to complete two questionnaires: the Three‐Factor Eating Questionnaire and the Child Feeding Questionnaire, which measure dimensions of parent eating behavior and child feeding practices, respectively. Parent BMI was calculated from self‐reported height and weight; children's measures included BMI and percentage fat assessed by DXA. Regression analyses were used to analyze relationships between parents’ BMI and questionnaire scores and children's weight status. Results : One hundred forty‐three mothers and 68 fathers returned questionnaires, representing parents of 148 children 3 to 5 years old (78 boys). Children's weight was related to mothers’ BMI, but not fathers’. Girls had a greater BMI if either parent reported being overweight as a child, and both girls and boys were likely to be overweight if their mothers believed they had risky eating habits (fussiness, eating too much, etc.). Girls with fathers who were more controlling had a higher percentage fat; these fathers were also more concerned about their daughters’ future health. Discussion : Mothers exert a strong influence over their children's weight and seem to be more concerned about their children's eating behaviors; however, fathers play a role in imposing child feeding practices. Gender bias may be present in child feeding, as suggested by dissimilar effects of parent practices on the weight status of girls vs. boys. Fathers should be included in future studies analyzing parent feeding practices and children's weight outcome.     

Parental obesity moderates the relationship between childhood appetitive traits and weight

Objective:

In this study, the independent and combined associations between childhood appetitive traits and parental obesity on weight gain from 0 to 24 months and body mass index (BMI) z‐score at 24 months in a diverse community‐based sample of dual parent families (n = 213) were examined.

Design and Methods:

Participants were mothers who had recently completed a randomized trial of weight loss for overweight/obese postpartum women. As measures of childhood appetitive traits, mothers completed subscales of the Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire, including Desire to Drink (DD), Enjoyment of Food (EF), and Satiety Responsiveness (SR), and a 24‐h dietary recall for their child. Heights and weights were measured for all children and mothers and self‐reported for mothers' partners. The relationship between children's appetitive traits and parental obesity on toddler weight gain and BMI z‐score were evaluated using multivariate linear regression models, controlling for a number of potential confounders.

Results:

Having two obese parents was related to greater weight gain from birth to 24 months independent of childhood appetitive traits, and although significant associations were found between appetitive traits (DD and SR) and child BMI z‐score at 24 months, these associations were observed only among children who had two obese parents. When both parents were obese, increasing DD and decreasing SR were associated with a higher BMI z‐score.

Conclusions:

The results highlight the importance of considering familial risk factors when examining the relationship between childhood appetitive traits on childhood obesity.     

Identification of an Obese Eating Style in 4‐year‐old Children Born at High and Low Risk for Obesity

This study tested whether children's eating behavior and parental feeding prompts during a laboratory test meal differ among children born at high risk (HR) or low risk (LR) for obesity and are associated with excess child weight gain. At 4 years of age, 32 HR children (mean maternal prepregnancy BMI = 30.4 kg/m²) and 29 LR children (maternal BMI = 19.6 kg/m²) consumed a test meal in which their eating behavior was assessed, including rate of caloric consumption, mouthfuls/min, and requests for food. Parental prompts for the child to eat also were measured at year 4, and child body composition was measured at ages 4 and 6 years. T‐tests, and logistic and multiple regression analyses tested study aims. Results indicated that HR and LR children did not differ in eating rate or parental feeding prompts. Greater maternal BMI, child mouthfuls of food/min, and total caloric intake/min during the test meal predicted an increased risk of being overweight or obese at age 6, whereas greater active mealtime was associated with a reduced risk of being overweight or obese. Regression analyses indicated that only mouthfuls of food/min predicted changes in BMI from 4 to 6 years, and mouthfuls of food/min and gender predicted 2‐year changes in sum of skinfolds and total body fat. Thus, a rapid eating style, characterized by increased mouthfuls of food/min, may be a behavioral marker for the development of childhood obesity.     

Associations between multiple measures of parental feeding and children's adiposity in United Kingdom preschoolers

Objective: Research into the association between parental control over feeding and children's adiposity has produced inconclusive results. Some studies have found parental control to be associated with unhealthy food choices and disordered intake regulation, whereas others have found favorable or null associations between control and adiposity. This study hypothesized that variability in measures of parental feeding could contribute to these discrepancies. Scales from a range of existing parental feeding questionnaires were used together, in the same large sample of children, to examine associations with adiposity. Research Methods and Procedures: Associations between scores on scales from three published parental feeding questionnaires [Child Feeding Questionnaire (CFQ); Preschooler Feeding Questionnaire (PFQ); and Parental Feeding Style Questionnaire (PFSQ)] and children's BMI z‐scores, calculated from measured heights and weights, were examined in a socioeconomically diverse sample of 439 parents and their 3‐ to 5‐year‐old children. Results: Higher scores on CFQ Pressure to Eat and PFQ Pushing the Child to Eat More were significantly associated with lower BMI z‐score, while PFSQ Prompting to Eat, CFQ Restriction, PFSQ Instrumental Feeding, and PFSQ Emotional Feeding were unassociated with BMI z‐score. Discussion: These results suggest that parents of leaner children are more likely to encourage their children to eat. Other feeding strategies seemed to have negligible relationships with children's BMI z‐scores at this stage. Longitudinal and genetically informed designs are needed to clarify the causal pathways between parental feeding and children's adiposity.     

The relationship between parents' anti-fat attitudes and restrictive feeding

Objective: Anti‐fat prejudice is a common attitude in our society, and it has implications for those who hold and are targets of this prejudice. Little is known, however, about how parents’ anti‐fat attitudes impact the ways they feed their young children. We hypothesized that parents’ attitudes about weight would predict parents’ restrictive feeding practices above and beyond the effects of the child's actual weight and the parents’ concern about child overweight. Research Methods and Procedures: A total of 126 mothers and 102 fathers returned surveys about anti‐fat attitudes, feeding practices (restriction for weight and restriction for health), and concern about child overweight. Results: Parental concern about child overweight was related to higher restrictive feeding practices for both mothers and fathers. Parents’ anti‐fat attitudes also predicted restrictive feeding above and beyond the effects of parent and child BMI and parental concern about overweight. Discussion: These findings suggest that parents’ anti‐fat attitudes impact the way they feed their children.     

Away-from-home food intake and risk for obesity: examining the influence of context

Objective: This study examined sociodemographic and cultural determinants of away‐from‐home food consumption in two contexts and the influence of frequency of away‐from‐home food consumption on children's dietary intake and parent and child weight status. Methods and Procedures: Parents of children (N = 708) in grades K‐2 were recruited from 13 elementary schools in Southern California. Parents were asked through a questionnaire the frequency with which they eat meals away from home and the restaurant they frequented most often. The height and weight of the parents and their children were measured to calculate BMI. Results: Consuming foods at least once a week from relatives/neighbors/friends (RNF) homes was associated with children's dietary intake and children's risk for obesity. For example, children of parents with weekly or greater RNF food consumption drank more sugar‐sweetened beverages. Parents of families who ate at restaurants at least weekly reported that their children consumed more sugar‐sweetened beverages, more sweet/savory snacks, and less water compared with families who did not frequent restaurants this often. The type of restaurant visited did not affect diet intake or obesity. More acculturated families exhibited less healthy dietary behaviors than less acculturated families. Discussion: Restaurants remain an important setting for preventing child and adult obesity, but other settings outside the home need to be considered in future intervention research. This may especially involve eating in the homes of RNF.     

Maternal and paternal controlling feeding practices: reliability and relationships with BMI

Objective: This study aimed to examine the interrelationships between mothers' and fathers' reports on the child‐feeding questionnaire (CFQ), the BMI of parents and their children, and observations of parents' controlling feeding practices at mealtimes. Methods and Procedures: Twenty‐three mothers and twenty‐three fathers of children aged between 18 and 67 months reported on their child‐feeding practices, on their child's height and weight, and were observed during a normal family mealtime at home. Results: No associations were found between mothers' reported and observed feeding practices. Fathers' reported pressure to eat and restriction were associated with more controlling observed mealtime feeding practices. Mothers and fathers did not significantly differ in their reported or observed child‐feeding practices. Children's BMI was not related to maternal or paternal reported or observed feeding practices. More mealtime pressure was observed in parents with a higher BMI. Discussion: Fathers' self‐reports of their mealtime practices are reliable. Mothers' feeding practices may differ when fathers are present and further work should examine mothers at mealtimes with and without fathers. Although children's BMI was not related to parents' use of reported or observed control, parents with a higher BMI were more controlling, highlighting the importance of considering parents' own weight in future studies.     

Weight Loss Attempts and Attitudes toward Body Size,Eating, and Physical Activity in American Indian Children: Relationship to Weight Status and Gender

Objective: This study examined dieting, weight perceptions, and self‐efficacy to eat healthy foods and engage in physical activity and their relationships to weight status and gender among American Indian elementary schoolchildren. Research Methods and Procedures: Data for this study were collected as part of the baseline examination for the Pathways study. Participants were 1441 second‐ through third‐grade American Indian children in 41 schools representing seven tribes in Arizona, New Mexico, and South Dakota who filled out a questionnaire and had heights and weights taken. Results: Forty‐two percent of the children were overweight or obese. No differences were found between overweight/obese and normal weight children for healthy food intentions or self‐efficacy. Heavier children (especially those with body mass index > 95th percentile) were more likely to have tried to lose weight or were currently trying to lose weight. No gender differences were found. Normal weight children chose a slightly heavier body size as most healthy compared with overweight/obese children. Discussion: The results indicate that children are concerned about their weight and that weight modification efforts are common among overweight American Indian children. School, community, and family‐based programs are needed to help young people adopt lifelong healthful eating and physical activity practices.     

Maternal BMI and country of birth as indicators of childhood obesity in children of Mexican origin

Objective: The goal of this study was to evaluate the relationship between maternal and childhood BMI at baseline in a group of 5‐ to 18‐year‐old children and their mothers, all of whom were of Mexican origin, low socioeconomic status, and enrolled in a cohort study in Houston, TX. Research Methods and Procedures: Using data from 438 mother‐child dyads residing in the same household, we completed logistic regression analyses to determine maternal factors associated with the child being overweight or at‐risk‐for‐overweight, after adjusting for the child's gender, age, and level of physical activity and other maternal confounders. Results: Almost one‐half of the boys and girls (47% and 44%, respectively) were either overweight or at‐risk‐for‐overweight. Obese mothers were twice as likely to have an overweight and/or at‐risk‐for‐overweight child compared with normal‐weight mothers. Women born in the U.S. were twice as likely to have an overweight and/or at‐risk‐for‐overweight child compared with women born in Mexico. In addition, women with less than a high school education were twice as likely to have an overweight child compared with their more educated peers. Discussion: The high prevalence of overweight or at‐risk‐for‐overweight among Mexican‐origin children of low socioeconomic status suggests a continued need to develop and implement culturally sensitive preventive interventions for this minority population. Our data also suggest a need to tailor such interventions particularly for children of obese mothers and those born in the U.S.     

Additive Interactions of Maternal Prepregnancy BMI and Breast‐feeding on Childhood Overweight

Objective: To examine the interactions of maternal prepregnancy BMI and breast‐feeding on the risk of overweight among children 2 to 14 years of age. Research Methods and Procedures: The 1996 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, Child and Young Adult data in the United States were analyzed (n = 2636). The weighted sample represented 51.3% boys, 78.0% whites, 15.0% blacks, and 7.0% Hispanics. Childhood overweight was defined as BMI ≥95th percentile for age and sex. Maternal prepregnancy obesity was determined as BMI ≥30 kg/m². The duration of breast‐feeding was measured as the weeks of age from birth when breast‐feeding ended. Results: After adjusting for potential confounders, children whose mothers were obese before pregnancy were at a greater risk of becoming overweight [adjusted odds ratio (OR), 4.1; 95% confidence interval (CI), 2.6, 6.4] than children whose mothers had normal BMI (<25 kg/m²; p < 0.001 for linear trend). Breast‐feeding for ≥4 months was associated with a lower risk of childhood overweight (OR, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.4, 1.0; p = 0.06 for linear trend). The additive interaction between maternal prepregnancy obesity and lack of breast‐feeding was detected (p < 0.05), such that children whose mothers were obese and who were never breast‐fed had the greatest risk of becoming overweight (OR, 6.1; 95% CI, 2.9, 13.1). Discussion: The combination of maternal prepregnancy obesity and lack of breast‐feeding may be associated with a greater risk of childhood overweight. Special attention may be needed for children with obese mothers and lack of breast‐feeding in developing childhood obesity intervention programs.     

Is Parental Control over Children's Eating Associated with Childhood Obesity? Results from a Population‐Based Sample of Third Graders

Objective: Identifying parental behaviors that influence childhood obesity is critical for the development of effective prevention and treatment programs. Findings from a prior laboratory study suggest that parents who impose control over their children's eating may interfere with their children's ability to regulate intake, potentially resulting in overweight. These findings have been widely endorsed; however, the direct relationship between parental control of children's intake and their children's degree of overweight has not been shown in a generalized sample. Research Methods and Procedures: This study surveyed 792 third‐grade children with diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds from 13 public elementary schools. Parental control over children's intake was assessed through telephone interviews using a state‐of‐the‐art instrument, and children were measured for height, weight, and triceps skinfold thickness. Results: Counter to the hypothesis, parental control over children's intake was inversely associated with overweight in girls, as measured by body mass index, r = ?0.12, p < 0.05, and triceps skinfolds, r = ?0.11, p < 0.05. This weak relationship became only marginally significant when controlling for parents’ perceptions of their own weight, level of household education, and children's age. No relationship between parental control of children's intake and their children's degree of overweight was found in boys. Discussion: Previous observations of the influence of parental control over children's intake in middle‐class white families did not generalize to 8‐ to 9‐year‐olds in families with diverse socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds. The present findings reveal a more complex relationship between parental behaviors and children's weight status.     

Transgenerational effects of nutrition are different for sons and daughters

Food shortage is an important selective factor shaping animal life‐history trajectories. Yet, despite its role, many aspects of the interaction between parental and offspring food environments remain unclear. In this study, we measured developmental plasticity in response to food availability over two generations and tested the relative contribution of paternal and maternal food availability to the performance of offspring reared under matched and mismatched food environments. We applied a cross‐generational split‐brood design using the springtail Orchesella cincta, which is found in the litter layer of temperate forests. The results show adverse effects of food limitation on several life‐history traits and reproductive performance of both parental sexes. Food conditions of both parents contributed to the offspring phenotypic variation, providing evidence for transgenerational effects of diet. Parental diet influenced sons’ age at maturity and daughters’ weight at maturity. Specifically, being born to food‐restricted parents allowed offspring to alleviate the adverse effects of food limitation, without reducing their performance under well‐fed conditions. Thus, parents raised on a poor diet primed their offspring for a more efficient resource use. However, a mismatch between maternal and offspring food environments generated sex‐specific adverse effects: female offspring born to well‐fed mothers showed a decreased flexibility to deal with low‐food conditions. Notably, these maternal effects of food availability were not observed in the sons. Finally, we found that the relationship between age and size at maturity differed between males and females and showed that offspring life‐history strategies in O. cincta are primed differently by the parents.     

Liraglutide, a once-daily human glucagon-like peptide-1 analog, minimizes food intake in severely obese minipigs

Objectives: To evaluate the efficacy of liraglutide, a new, stable, once‐daily human analog of glucagon‐like peptide‐1, in a new animal model of obesity. Research Methods and Procedures: Liraglutide was administered subcutaneously once daily (7 μg/kg for 7 weeks) to six female obese Göttingen minipigs. Food intake and feeding patterns were monitored using a novel automated feeding system that allowed continuous recording of food intake. Results: Food intake was strongly suppressed. A steady‐state level of reduced food intake was achieved within 3 weeks and was maintained for the remaining 4 weeks of the treatment period. During the 4‐week steady‐state period with liraglutide treatment, daily food intake was 7.3 ± 0.3 megajoule (MJ) compared with 18.4 ± 0.6 MJ in the pre‐treatment period and 19.2 ± 0.5 MJ in the post‐treatment period (p < 0.001). The food intake in the treatment period was equivalent to the amount of food that would have been offered to normal‐weight pigs for maintenance. Body weight decreased 4.3 ± 1.2 kg (4% to 5%) during the 7 weeks of treatment and increased 7.0 ± 1.0 kg during the 7 weeks of post‐treatment (p < 0.01). Appetite suppression was quickly reversed within 4 days after termination of liraglutide administration. Discussion: Overall, liraglutide was well tolerated and had a profound and persistent anorectic effect that resulted in weight loss. These results, in conjunction with the previously established glucose‐lowering efficacy of liraglutide, suggest that the anorectic actions of liraglutide will be very important in clinical trials of both obese patients with type 2 diabetes and obese non‐diabetic patients.     

The association of television and video viewing with fast food intake by preschool-age children

Objective: To examine the extent to which television (TV) and video viewing is associated with consumption of fast food by preschool‐age children. Research Methods and Procedures: In a cross‐sectional study of 240 parents of children ages 2.0 to 5.9 years, parents reported the number of hours their child watched TV/videos on an average weekday and weekend day in the past month; a daily, weighted average of TV/video viewing was then calculated. The main outcome was parents’ report of their children's fast food intake, using the question, “How many times a week does your child eat at fast food restaurants such as McDonald's, Burger King, or Kentucky Fried Chicken?” dichotomized to (never/<1 vs. ≥1 time/wk). The association of TV/video viewing with fast food intake was evaluated by multiple logistic regression before and after adjusting for several potential confounders. Results: Twenty‐two percent of parents reported that their child ate at fast food restaurants at least once per week. After adjusting for parents’ age, race/ethnicity, and household income as well as child's age and sex, for each 1‐hour increase of TV/video watched per day, the odds ratio (OR) for consuming fast food ≥1 time per week was 1.60 (95% confidence interval, 1.03 to 2.49). After further adjustment for socio‐environmental factors that might serve as proxies for the availability of healthy food options, such as parental time constraints and the availability and high cost of fresh fruits and vegetables in their neighborhoods, the OR for consuming fast food ≥1 time per week was minimally attenuated (OR, 1.55; 95% confidence interval, 1.04 to 2.31). Discussion: TV/video viewing was correlated with fast food consumption among preschool children in this study. Our findings raise the possibility that greater exposure to TV and videos may influence preschool children's consumption of unhealthful foods.     

Regional Fat Pad Growth and Cellularity in Obese Zucker Rats: Modulation by Caloric Restriction

Objective : To investigate, in young obese male Zucker rats, the effects of chronic food restriction and subsequent refeeding on: 1) parameters of nonadipose and adipose growth, 2) regional adipose depot cellularity [fat cell volume (FCV) and number], and 3) circulating leptin levels. Research Methods and Procedures : Obese (fa/fa) and lean (Fa/?) male Zucker rats were studied from age 5 to 19 weeks. After baseline food intake monitoring, 10 obese rats were subjected to 58 days of marked caloric restriction from ad libitum levels [obese‐restricted (OR)], followed by a return to ad libitum feeding for 22 days. Ten lean control rats and 10 obese control rats were fed ad libitum for the entire experiment. All rats were fed using a computer‐driven automated feeding system designed to mimic natural eating patterns. Results : After food restriction, OR rats weighed significantly less than did lean and obese rats and showed a significant diminution in body and adipose growth as compared with obese rats. Relative adiposity was not different between obese and OR rats and was significantly higher than that of lean rats. The limitation in growth of the adipose tissue mass in OR rats was due mostly to suppression of fat cell proliferation because the mean FCV in each of the four depots was not affected. Serum leptin levels of OR and obese rats were not different from each other but were significantly higher than those of lean rats. Discussion : Marked caloric restriction affects obese male Zucker rats in a manner different from that of nongenetic rodent models (i.e., Wistar rats). In comparison with the response to caloric deprivation of Wistar rats, these calorically restricted obese male Zucker rats appeared to defend their relative adiposity and mean FCV at the expense of fat cell number. These findings indicate that genetic and/or tissue‐specific controls override the general consequences of food restriction in this genetic model of obesity.     

Increasing Fruit and Vegetable Intake and Decreasing Fat and Sugar Intake in Families at Risk for Childhood Obesity

Objective: The goal of this study was to evaluate the effect of a parent‐focused behavioral intervention on parent and child eating changes and on percentage of overweight changes in families that contain at least one obese parent and a non‐obese child. Research Methods and Procedures: Families with obese parents and non‐obese children were randomized to groups in which parents were provided a comprehensive behavioral weight‐control program and were encouraged to increase fruit and vegetable intake or decrease intake of high‐fat/high‐sugar foods. Child materials targeted the same dietary changes as their parents without caloric restriction. Results: Changes over 1 year showed that treatment influenced targeted parent and child fruit and vegetable intake and high‐fat/high‐sugar intake, with the Increase Fruit and Vegetable group also decreasing their consumption of high‐fat/high‐sugar foods. Parents in the increased fruit and vegetable group showed significantly greater decreases in percentage of overweight than parents in the decreased high‐fat/high‐sugar group. Discussion: These results suggest that focusing on increasing intake of healthy foods may be a useful approach for nutritional change in obese parents and their children.     

Increased Carbohydrate Induced Ghrelin Secretion in Obese vs. Normal‐weight Adolescent Girls

Orexigenic and anorexigenic pathways mediate food intake and may be affected by meal composition. Our objective was to determine whether changes in levels of active ghrelin and peptide YY (PYY) differ in obese vs. normal‐weight adolescent girls following specific macronutrient intake and predict hunger and subsequent food intake. We enrolled 26 subjects: 13 obese and 13 normal‐weight girls, 12–18 years old, matched for maturity (as assessed by bone age) and race. Subjects were assigned a high‐carbohydrate, high‐protein, and high‐fat breakfast in random order. Active ghrelin and PYY were assessed for 4 h after breakfast and 1 h after intake of a standardized lunch. Hunger was assessed using a standardized visual analog scale (VAS). No suppression in active ghrelin levels was noted following macronutrient intake in obese or normal‐weight girls. Contrary to expectations, active ghrelin increased in obese girls following the high‐carbohydrate breakfast, and the percent increase was higher than in controls (P = 0.046). Subsequent food intake at lunch was also higher (P = 0.03). Following the high‐fat breakfast, but not other breakfasts, percent increase in PYY was lower (P = 0.01) and subsequent lunch intake higher (P = 0.005) in obese compared with normal‐weight girls. In obese adolescents, specific intake of high‐carbohydrate and high‐fat breakfasts is associated with greater increases in ghrelin, lesser increases in PYY, and higher intake at a subsequent meal than in controls. Changes in anorexigenic and orexigenic hormones in obese vs. normal‐weight adolescents following high‐carbohydrate and high‐fat meals may influence hunger and satiety signals and subsequent food intake.     

The Effects of Consuming Frequent,Higher Protein Meals on Appetite and Satiety During Weight Loss in Overweight/Obese Men

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of dietary protein and eating frequency on perceived appetite and satiety during weight loss. A total of 27 overweight/obese men (age 47 ± 3 years; BMI 31.5 ± 0.7 kg/m²) were randomized to groups that consumed an energy‐restriction diet (i.e., 750 kcal/day below daily energy need) as either higher protein (HP, 25% of energy as protein, n = 14) or normal protein (NP, 14% of energy as protein, n = 13) for 12 weeks. Beginning on week 7, the participants consumed their respective diets as either 3 eating occasions/day (3‐EO; every 5 h) or 6 eating occasions/day (6‐EO; every 2 h), in randomized order, for 3 consecutive days. Indexes of appetite and satiety were assessed every waking hour on the third day of each pattern. Daily hunger, desire to eat, and preoccupation with thoughts of food were not different between groups. The HP group experienced greater fullness throughout the day vs. NP (511 ± 56 vs. 243 ± 54 mm · 15 h; P < 0.005). When compared to NP, the HP group experienced lower late‐night desire to eat (13 ± 4 vs. 27 ± 4 mm, P < 0.01) and preoccupation with thoughts of food (8 ± 4 vs. 21 ± 4 mm; P < 0.01). Within groups, the 3 vs. 6‐EO patterns did not influence daily hunger, fullness, desire to eat, or preoccupation with thoughts of food. The 3‐EO pattern led to greater evening and late‐night fullness vs. 6‐EO but only within the HP group (P < 0.005). Collectively, these data support the consumption of HP intake, but not greater eating frequency, for improved appetite control and satiety in overweight/obese men during energy restriction‐induced weight loss.     

Immigration and obesity among lower income blacks

Objective: Our objective was to examine the associations of nativity, immigrant generation, and language acculturation with obesity among lower income black adult men and women. Research Methods and Procedures: Data from 551 black adult men and women were collected from participants in the Healthy Directions‐Health Centers Study. Race/ethnicity and nativity were self‐reported. Language acculturation was defined using participants’ first language, preferred reading language, and language spoken at home. Mixed model logistic regression models were estimated to account for within‐health center clustering. Results: Foreign‐born blacks had a lower obesity risk, compared with all U.S.‐born participants, in multivariable analyses [odds ratio (OR) = 0.57, 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.38, 0.84]. Among U.S.‐born participants, those with foreign‐born parents were significantly less likely to be obese than individuals with U.S.‐born parents (OR = 0.54; 95% CI, 0.37, 0.80). Low‐moderate language acculturation also decreased the odds of being obese (OR = 0.45; 95% CI, 0.23, 0.88). Discussion: Our findings suggest a protective effect of foreign‐born status and low‐moderate language acculturation on obesity risk among lower income black immigrants. These data highlight the importance of more frequently examining nativity in obesity‐related research conducted among blacks.