Persistent Controversy in Statistical Approaches in Wildlife Sciences: A Perspective of Students

ABSTRACT The controversy over the use of null hypothesis statistical testing (NHST) has persisted for decades, yet NHST remains the most widely used statistical approach in wildlife sciences and ecology. A disconnect exists between those opposing NHST and many wildlife scientists and ecologists who conduct and publish research. This disconnect causes confusion and frustration on the part of students. We, as students, offer our perspective on how this issue may be addressed. Our objective is to encourage academic institutions and advisors of undergraduate and graduate students to introduce students to various statistical approaches so we can make well-informed decisions on the appropriate use of statistical tools in wildlife and ecological research projects. We propose an academic course that introduces students to various statistical approaches (e.g., Bayesian, frequentist, Fisherian, information theory) to build a foundation for critical thinking in applying statistics. We encourage academic advisors to become familiar with the statistical approaches available to wildlife scientists and ecologists and thus decrease bias towards one approach. Null hypothesis statistical testing is likely to persist as the most common statistical analysis tool in wildlife science until academic institutions and student advisors change their approach and emphasize a wider range of statistical methods.     

国家公园原住民对野生动物肇事的认知、意愿及其影响因素——以武夷山国家公园为例

国家公园原住民对野生动物肇事的态度直接影响野生动物保护政策有效实施以及人与野生动物共存机制。迄今,学术界鲜有从原住民认知与意愿角度探讨野生动物肇事的成果,基于自然保护地国家公园的相关研究尚未见报道。根据449份有效调查问卷及深度访谈数据,论文采用有序多分类Logistic回归方法,探讨武夷山国家公园原住民对野生动物肇事的认知、意愿及其影响因素。结果表明：（1）多数原住民经历过野生动物肇事,其农作物及牲畜受到严重损害,野猪（Sus scrofa）为研究区域主要的肇事动物。（2）种群数量增加、食物短缺和生存空间受限是野生动物肇事的主要原因。（3）学历、经历及认可政府应对肇事的方式对原住民防范野生动物肇事意愿的影响显著。在此基础上,提出遵循生态规律、保护栖息地、提升认知与意愿、实行社区共管、建立野生动物致害补偿机制以及引入野生动物致害赔偿保险等对策,希望能够深化对野生动物肇事特征及机理的科学认识,为有效缓解人与野生动物冲突、推进国家公园人与野生动物和谐提供政策参考。     

Identifying multiple wildlife species-crop interactions using network analysis

Managing crop damage by wildlife is a complex challenge in agrarian-wildlife landscapes. Losses to farmers and their negative attitude towards crop-raiding wildlife, compromise wildlife conservation and farmer-wildlife coexistence. Priority crop types, crop-raiding wildlife and socio-ecological factors are highly integrated. Here we use cross-sectional network analysis as a conservation planning tool to simultaneously identify the crop types used by crop-raiding wildlife, and evaluate the importance of these crop-wildlife interactions relative to the socio-ecological factors that affect these interactions. The most vulnerable crops were maize, millet and fruit trees, while the most problematic crop-raiding wildlife were African elephant, bushpig, hippo, warthog and red-billed quelea. Crop damage declined with countermeasure effectiveness, farm size, and distance from river to farm, but increased with richness of attractive crops. Undamaged crops included cash crops, such as chili, onion, ginger, lemon grass and garlic. Applying network analysis to different crops and damage scenarios enables identification of the most important and influential crops, crop-raiding wildlife and socio-ecological factors needed to develop effective crop protection strategies.     

How to work with children and animals: A guide for school‐based citizen science in wildlife research

Engaging school students in wildlife research through citizen science projects can be a win–win for scientists and educators. Not only does it provide a way for scientists to gather new data, but it can also contribute to science education and help younger generations become more environmentally aware. However, wildlife research can be challenging in the best of circumstances, and there are few guidelines available to help scientists create successful citizen science projects for school students. This paper explores the opportunities and challenges faced when developing school‐based citizen science projects in wildlife research by synthesising two sources of information. First, we conducted a small, school‐based citizen science project that investigated the effects of supplementary feeding on urban birds as a case study. Second, we reviewed the literature to develop a database of school‐based citizen science projects that address questions in wildlife ecology and conservation. Based on these activities, we present five lessons for scientists considering a school‐based citizen science project. Overall, we found that school‐based citizen science projects must be carefully designed to ensure reliable data are collected, students remain engaged, and the project is achievable under the logistical constraints presented by conducting wildlife research in a school environment. Ultimately, we conclude that school‐based citizen science projects can be a powerful way of collecting wildlife data while also contributing to the education and development of environmentally aware students.     

Feeding of wildlife: How effective are the ‘Keep Wildlife Wild’ signs in Tasmania's National Parks?

Summary   We investigated attitudes of the visiting public to feeding wildlife and the effectiveness of the 'Keep Wildlife Wild' signs in Tasmania's National Parks. We surveyed visitors to three visitor nodes in two National Parks for their opinions regarding the feeding of wildlife. Participants were asked whether they had seen a 'Keep Wildlife Wild' sign, and the role played by the sign in determining their opinions. A total of 118 visitors were interviewed. The majority of respondents (92.2%) were against feeding wildlife. Only 3.5% of respondents were in favour of feeding wildlife, while 4.3% had no opinion on the subject. The most commonly cited reason against feeding wildlife was that it caused harm to the animal. The majority of respondents (69.6%) had sighted a 'Keep Wildlife Wild' sign posted in Tasmania's National Parks since 1996, 84.6% of which said that the sign had reinforced a pre-existing opinion against feeding. Only 3.9% of respondents who had seen the sign said that the sign had formed their opinion against feeding. We also observed a total of 68 people interacting with wildlife while they were eating lunch. A total of 70 interactions between visitors ( n  = 68) and wildlife were recorded. Thirty-seven (52.9%) of these interactions involved feeding an animal, although this feeding activity was carried out by only five people (7.4% of total). Numerous examples of inadvertent feeding were also observed in which Black Currawongs ( Strepera fuliginosa ) scavenged for food scraps once visitors had left.     

Roadside conditions as predictor for wildlife crossing probability in a Central African rainforest

The negative effects of roads on wildlife in tropical rainforests are poorly understood. Road construction has high priority in Africa, while negative impacts of roads on wildlife movement often are neglected. This study aims at providing information on the effects of roads on crossing behaviour of rainforest wildlife. The probability that wildlife would cross forest roads was analysed for association with ten different factors that were linked to road presence or construction. Factors were divided into three classes: vegetation cover, topography and human influence. A trackplot survey was done in southern Cameroon, Africa. Trackplots were laid along a 32 km unpaved logging road that intersects Campo‐Ma’an National Park. Tracks of several species were found frequently (e.g. genets and porcupines); while others were found only sporadically (e.g. forest duikers and apes). The actual physical obstacles found along the road (e.g. logs, banks, etc.) were highly negatively correlated with crossing probabilities. For all wildlife species high vegetation cover was positively correlated to crossing probability. This study indicates that roads have a large impact on wildlife, and suggests which factors could be altered during road construction and maintenance in order to mitigate these impacts.     

The effect of habitat and human disturbance on the spatiotemporal activity of two urban carnivores: The results of an intensive camera trap study

With rising urbanization, the presence of urban wildlife is becoming more common, increasing the need for wildlife‐friendly spaces in urban planning. Despite this, understanding is limited to how wildlife exploits urban environments and interacts with human populations, and this is vital to our ability to manage and conserve wildlife in urban habitats. Here, we investigate how two urban mammal species, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the European badger (Meles meles), exploit urban environments. Using intensive camera trap surveys, we assessed how habitat and human disturbance influenced the spatiotemporal activity of these species across south‐west London. Firstly, we found elevated activity levels of both species at boundaries and within built‐up areas, suggesting movement paths follow anthropogenic features. However, badgers were most active in woodland, indicating the importance of high cover habitats suitable for setts and foraging. Secondly, we found badger activity levels were negatively affected by human activity, whilst foxes were unaffected. Further investigation suggested foxes may adapt their activity patterns to avoid human disturbance, with badger activity patterns less plastic. Whilst the results of this study are useful for both the conservation and management of urban wildlife populations, these results also show potential factors which either facilitate or limit wildlife from fully exploiting urban environments.     

Opinion Practical and ethical considerations for students conducting ecological research involving wildlife

This commentary outlines relevant changes to the Australian Code of Practice for the Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes for ecologists and students active in field‐based wildlife research. All field‐based activities that require the approval of an Animal Ethics Committee (AEC) have now been detailed within the revised Code of Practice. Researchers and their students are required to give explicit consideration to the humane principles of replacement, reduction and refinement within their experimental protocols as a part of the AEC permission procedure. University‐based researchers also have obligations to train graduate students in the ethical as well as the practical components of wildlife research. In promoting this educational aim, a summary of ethical considerations in wildlife research is offered as a basis for discussion: the regulatory framework of research animal welfare (including an introduction to the Code of Practice, the AEC process and some thoughts on experimental design); and the humane principles on which the Code of Practice is based. Some practical considerations for field work relevant to students’ research training are also described.     

Wildlife Interactions within Highway Underpasses

Highway underpasses are a common management tool used to lessen wildlife-vehicle collisions on roadways. Despite their widespread use, the effects of predator-prey interactions and human disturbances on wildlife within underpasses have not been well studied. To understand the effect of species interactions and human disturbances on wildlife traveling through underpasses, we analyzed camera data from 3 underpasses in Hallelujah Junction Wildlife Area, Sierra County, California, USA, from June 2017 to December 2018. We recorded 3,589 detections, which were predominately mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), rodents, lagomorphs, California quail (Callipepla californica), bobcats (Lynx rufus), mountain lions (Puma concolor), and coyotes (Canis latrans). We used occupancy modeling and daily activity estimates to analyze species' spatial and temporal activity within the underpasses. Predator-prey interactions and human disturbances were among the most important factors that influenced wildlife travel through the underpasses. Mule deer avoided underpasses highly used by mountain lions, and mountain lions followed mule deer daily temporal activity patterns and seasonal activity patterns. These results indicate that predator-prey interactions influenced deer and mountain lion use of the underpasses. Coyotes favored underpasses and seasons with higher rodent and lagomorph presence, suggesting that the presence of prey was also important to coyote use of the underpasses. Coyotes, mountain lions, and bobcats all exhibited either temporal or spatial avoidance of human activity within the underpasses. California quail avoided predators within the underpasses and favored underpasses and times with high human activity. Our study suggests that underpass managers need to closely monitor the effect of predator-prey interactions and human activity on wildlife within underpasses to ensure these interactions do not discourage wildlife from using them. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

The role of community-based wild resource management in Zimbabwe

Wildlife was in decline in Zimbabwe while the resource was being managed centrally by the State in terms of conventional protectionist legislation. The legislation was changed in 1960 and this led to cautious institutional reforms, whereby responsibility for wildlife was gradually devolved to landholders who were encouraged to use it profitably. This was achieved without the State abrogating its ultimate responsibility for the wellbeing of the resource.The CAMPFIRE programme was a response to the particular requirements of communally managed wild resources. Successful implementation required that appropriate institutions were in place. These allowed the peasants a meaningful say in the management of their wildlife and permitted them to use it profitably to generate a sufficient incentive to persuade them to conserve the resource on their land. As on large-scale commercial ranches, socio-economic factors proved more significant than ecological considerations in preserving wildlife on communally occupied land that is representative of much of Africa and the Third World.Former Director of National Parks and Wild Life Management, Zimbabwe.     

Human-induced fear in wildlife: A review

Humans, like natural predators, can induce fear in wildlife, which has the potential to alter species-level survival and fitness. Though anthropogenic impacts on wildlife have been studied in detail, how wildlife respond behaviorally to human presence has been less studied. Here, we provide a literature review on how humans interact with wildlife populations through the ecology of fear framework. Fear responses can be proactive or reactive, and can go beyond behavioral changes to alterations in physiology (such as increases in stress) or alterations in individual chromosome structure. Wildlife are more likely to flee from humans if they possess a larger body size, are female, or have fear-associated genotypes. Intelligence and individual differences lead to variations in wildlife’s fear responses to humans that can make studying fear difficult. Wildlife fear responses to humans depend on environmental factors, including context-specific human presentation and whether the animal was in urban or rural habitats. Human-induced fear in wildlife may have cascading impacts on broader wildlife communities and habitat structure caused by changes in how individual species interact with other species and the environment.     

Integrating Professional Skills in Wildlife Student Education

Abstract: Recent articles have called for enhanced quantitative proficiency in wildlife students, arguing that such training will increase scientific rigor and produce wildlife researchers and managers who are better able to remedy current problems and to address future challenges in wildlife management. The idea that better, or more rigorous, science is the panacea for controversial natural resource problems is a cavalier and common presumption in many applied professions and one to which wildlife science and management is not immune. However, science and management are distinct processes and although scientific rigor is important, dialogue between the 2 processes is more critical for successful interaction. Integrated training that exposes students to nontraditional coursework and develops essential professional skills, such as planning, consensus-building, and communication, can help produce graduates to bridge the science—management gap and promote the conservation of natural resources. Changes in the structure and coursework of university wildlife departments can help to develop more effective wildlife professionals.     

Developing successful conservation education programs as a means to engage local communities in protecting cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) in Colombia

Engaging children in developing countries to care for wildlife, and to make appropriate choices to protect wildlife, are challenging tasks. Proyecto Tití works to conserve the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus), a critically endangered endemic monkey from Colombia, using a multi-disciplinary approach that focuses on scientific research, community empowerment, habitat protection, and conservation education to protect this species. Proyecto Tití has developed a multi-tiered methodology for education in rural communities that increases knowledge and understanding of the cotton-top tamarin and the threats to its survival, generates attitudes and behavior that support conservation, and provides opportunities to develop the future generation of conservation leaders in Colombia. We evaluated TITÍ KIDS and CARTITILLA, two of Proyecto Tití’s educational programs, measuring the knowledge gained by students before and immediately after the program. For CARTITILLA, we also measured the retention of knowledge after five years, and if the program developed pro-conservation attitudes and behaviors. We analyzed the evaluations of over 6000 students who participated in programs from 2011 to 2016, using a paired t-test. Students significantly increased their knowledge of cotton-top tamarins (p ≪ 0.01) and their ability to identify and classify domesticated and wild animals in their regions (p ≪ 0.01). Five years after participating in the CARTITILLA program, students had retained their knowledge about cotton-top tamarins and demonstrated attitudes and behavior that support cotton-top tamarin conservation. The educational programs of Proyecto Tití provide evidence that engaging youth in meaningful conservation activities can assist in the protection of cotton-top tamarins.     

Teaching animal habitat selection using wildlife tracking equipment

We present a hands-on outdoor activity coupled with classroom discussion to teach students about wildlife habitat selection, the process by which animals choose where to live. By selecting locations or habitats with many benefits (e.g., food, shelter, mates) and few costs (e.g., predators), animals improve their ability to survive and reproduce. Biologists track animal movement using radio telemetry technology to study habitat selection so they can better provide species with habitats that promote population growth. We present a curriculum in which students locate “animals” (transmitters) using radio telemetry equipment and apply math skills (use of fractions and percentages) to assess their “animal's” habitat selection by comparing the availability of habitat types with the proportion of “animals” they find in each habitat type.     

中国公众的国际野生动物保护意愿调查: 以非洲象为例

我国高度重视野生动物保护事业, 认真履行野生动物保护国际义务, 积极鼓励公众参与, 以扩大野生动物保护事业的公众基础。已有文献多关注了公众的国内野生动物保护意愿, 鲜有文献关注公众对国际野生动物的保护意愿, 难以为促进公众参与国际野生动物保护事业提供决策参考。本研究以全球旗舰物种非洲象(Loxodonta africana)为例, 结合非洲象保护的相关研究与实践, 构建拓展的计划行为理论框架, 通过线下和线上调研获取数据, 运用结构方程模型, 从态度、规范、知觉行为控制、过去经验及个体特征五个方面, 分析了我国公众的非洲象保护意愿及影响因素。结果表明: (1) 68.5%的公众具有非洲象保护愿意; (2)公众规范(系数为0.422)、过去经验(系数为0.253)、知觉行为控制(系数为0.160)、保护态度(系数为0.156)对保护意愿存在显著的正向影响; 男性公众(系数为-0.054)的保护意愿低于女性公众; 居住在西部地区的公众(系数为0.066)保护意愿更高; (3)模型整体通过了拟合检验, 表明研究结果具有稳健性。本研究的政策建议如下: (1)明确政策导向作用, 提升公众的道德义务感和社会责任感; (2)加强宣传教育, 丰富公众知识经验, 培育公众积极的保护态度; (3)拓宽保护参与渠道, 提高公众知觉行为控制; (4)制定合理方案, 提升保护宣教等实践活动成效。     

Exploring continuity equation via a modeling activity: in the context of crowd science

Abstract

Using problems from real life contexts which is related to learners’ environment or their culture plays an important role in their learning that concept. In this regard, science educators especially physics educators search for real-life domain of theoretical concepts for effective science teaching and they consider analogical and physical models as an opportunity in their instruction. In the presented activity, we worked with 66 senior pre-service science teachers from our science teaching methods course. We used crowd movements as a real-life domain of our analogical models to scientifically explain a stampede case, then utilized physical model to explore continuity equation. Real life problem based scenarios could be used while taking advantage of the 3?D modeling in teaching of scientific principle. As a result, we found that pre-service teachers were able to make scientific explanation for causes of stampedes by using modeling activity. High school teachers and upper-level instructors could benefit from including the modeling activity introduced in this study to help their students understand the concepts related to continuity equation by designing a physical model based on an analogical model. Via the physical model, students are able to make predictions, observations, interpretations and explanations of a complex and abstract scientific phenomenon.     

Risk factors for the detected presence of Mycobacterium bovis in cattle in south central Spain

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic bacterial disease of livestock and wildlife, which has major social and economic costs. In Spain, cattle test-and-slaughter schemes have dramatically reduced TB levels, but a wildlife reservoir of the disease is thought to be preventing total eradication. We aim to identify the risk factors for the presence of TB in cattle in Spain. In this case–control study, we combined a farmer-based questionnaire and participatory mapping with government records in Almodovar, Spain. Data were collected from a mixture of TB-free and TB-infected farms, yielding a total sample of 73 farms. Generalised linear modelling and information theory were used to identify the risk factors strongly associated with TB, and farmers were also asked their opinions on TB and wildlife management. The risk factors most strongly associated with TB on a farm were the presence of wildlife, the number of streams per hectare and feeding volume foods (e.g. hay) on the ground. Farmers’ opinions about TB were influenced by their experience of the disease and their interactions with wildlife. The results highlight the complexities of managing TB, and demonstrate the need for a system-level understanding of the inter-relationships among epidemiological, ecological, environmental, social and political risk factors.     

人与大型兽类的冲突: 野生动物保护所面临的新挑战

人和大型兽类的冲突已经成为人们日益关注的问题。野生动物损害庄稼,捕食家畜,甚至危及到人身安全。人兽冲突增加了野生兽类保护工作的困难。目前,导致人兽冲突比较典型的物种包括野生非洲象和野生亚洲象、绝大多数食肉动物和鹿类等等。引发人和大型兽类冲突的具体原因包括人口增长、野生动物栖息地丧失、土地利用方式的改变以及实施保护后野生动物种群的恢复,多数情况是多种因素共同作用的结果。减少人和大型兽类的冲突应从两方面着手:加强野生兽类管理,利用各种方法减缓损失;另一方面,关注当地社区,在提高当地人的保护意识的同时也要提高当地的经济水平。