Insights into plastome of Fagonia indica Burm.f. (Zygophyllaceae): organization,annotation and phylogeny

The enhanced understanding of chloroplast genomics would facilitate various biotechnology applications; however, the chloroplast (cp) genome / plastome characteristics of plants like Fagonia indica Burm.f. (family Zygophyllaceae), which have the capability to grow in extremely hot sand desert, have been rarely understood. The de novo genome sequence of F. indica using the Illumina high-throughput sequencing technology determined 128,379 bp long cp genome, encode 115 unique coding genes. The present study added the evidence of the loss of a copy of the IR in the cp genome of the taxa capable to grow in the hot sand desert. The maximum likelihood analysis revealed two distinct sub-clades i.e. Krameriaceae and Zygophyllaceae of the order Zygophyllales, nested within fabids.     

Piriformospora indica promotes cucumber tolerance against Root-knot nematode by modulating photosynthesis and innate responsive genes

Root Knot Nematode (RKN, Meloidogyne incognita) is one of the greatest damaging soil pathogens causes severe yield losses in cucumber and many other economic crops. Here, we evaluated the potential antagonistic effect of the root mutualistic fungus Piriformospora indica against RKN and their impact on vegetative growth, yield, photosynthesis, endogenous salicylic acid (SA) and its responsive genes. Our results showed that P. indica dramatically decreased the damage on shoot and root architecture of cucumber plants, which consequently enhanced yield of infested plants. Likewise, P. indica colonization clearly improved the chlorophyll content and delimited the negative impact of RNK on photosynthesis. Moreover, P. indica colonization exhibited a significant reduction of different vital nematological parameters such as soil larva density, amount of eggs/eggmass, eggmasses, females and amount of galls at cucumber roots. Additionally, the results showed that SA level was significantly increased generally in the roots of all treatments especially in plants infested with RKN alone as compared to control. This suggests that P. indica promoting SA levels in host cucumber plant roots to antagonize the RKN and alleviate severity damages occurred in its roots. This higher levels of SA in cucumber roots was consistent with the higher expressional levels of SA pathway genes PR1 and PR3. Furthermore, P. indica colonization reduces PR1, PR3 and increased NPR1 in roots of RKN infested cucumber plants when compared to non-colonized plants. Interestingly, our in vitro results showed that direct application of P. indica suspension against the J2s exhibited a significant increase in mortality ratio. Our results collectively suggest that P. indica promoting morphological, physiological and SA levels that might together play a major important role to alleviate the adverse impact of RKN in cucumber.     

Root colonization by Piriformospora indica enhances grain yield in barley under diverse nutrient regimes by accelerating plant development

The basidiomycete fungus Piriformospora indica colonizes roots of a broad range of mono- and dicotyledonous plants. It confers enhanced growth, improves resistance against biotic and tolerance to abiotic stress, and enhances grain yield in barley. To analyze mechanisms underlying P. indica-induced improved grain yield in a crop plant, the influence of different soil nutrient levels and enhanced biotic stress were tested under outdoor conditions. Higher grain yield was induced by the fungus independent of different phosphate and nitrogen fertilization levels. In plants challenged with the root rot-causing fungus Fusarium graminearum, P. indica was able to induce a similar magnitude of yield increase as in unchallenged plants. In contrast to the arbuscular mycorrhiza fungus Glomus mosseae, total phosphate contents of host plant roots and shoots were not significantly affected by P. indica. On the other hand, barley plants colonised with the endophyte developed faster, and were characterized by a higher photosynthetic activity at low light intensities. Together with the increased root formation early in development these factors contribute to faster development of ears as well as the production of more tillers per plant. The results indicate that the positive effect of P. indica on grain yield is due to accelerated growth of barley plants early in development, while improved phosphate supply—a central mechanism of host plant fortification by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi—was not observed in the P. indica-barley symbiosis.     

Accumulation of biomass and mineral elements with calendar time by corn: application of the expanded growth model

The expanded growth model is developed to describe accumulation of plant biomass (Mg ha(-1)) and mineral elements (kg ha(-1)) in with calendar time (wk). Accumulation of plant biomass with calendar time occurs as a result of photosynthesis for green land-based plants. A corresponding accumulation of mineral elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium occurs from the soil through plant roots. In this analysis, the expanded growth model is tested against high quality, published data on corn (Zea mays L.) growth. Data from a field study in South Carolina was used to evaluate the application of the model, where the planting time of April 2 in the field study maximized the capture of solar energy for biomass production. The growth model predicts a simple linear relationship between biomass yield and the growth quantifier, which is confirmed with the data. The growth quantifier incorporates the unit processes of distribution of solar energy which drives biomass accumulation by photosynthesis, partitioning of biomass between light-gathering and structural components of the plants, and an aging function. A hyperbolic relationship between plant nutrient uptake and biomass yield is assumed, and is confirmed for the mineral elements nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). It is concluded that the rate limiting process in the system is biomass accumulation by photosynthesis and that nutrient accumulation occurs in virtual equilibrium with biomass accumulation.     

Salicylic acid-mediated reductions in yield in Nicotiana attenuata challenged by aphid herbivory

Aphid herbivory decreases primary production in natural ecosystems and reduces crop yields. The mechanism for how aphids reduce yield is poorly understood as some studies suggest aphid feeding directly impedes photosynthesis, whereas other studies suggest a change in allocation of resources from growth to defense compounds reduces yield. To determine the mechanisms underlying reduced plant growth by aphids, Nicotiana attenuata plants, native tobacco, were infested with Myzus persicae ssp. nicotianae, tobacco-adapted green peach aphids, at low and high densities, and plant performance including fitness was assessed. To test the direct defense capacity of salicylic acid (SA) on aphid performance, we fed aphids an artificial diet with varying levels of SA and measured their survivorship and fecundity. There was no detectable effect of aphid herbivory on net photosynthesis, yet herbivory reduced plant growth, final biomass (43 % at high aphid density), and seed set (18 % at high aphid density) at both low and high aphid infestation levels. High-density aphid attack during the rosette and flowering stage caused an increase in SA levels, but caused only a transient decrease in jasmonic acid concentration at low aphid density. SA concentrations similar to those found in infested flowering plants decreased aphid fecundity, suggesting that SA was an effective chemical defense response against aphids. These results suggest that as aphid densities increased the proximal cause of reduced growth and yield was not reduced photosynthesis, but instead resources may have been mobilized for defense via the SA pathway, decreasing the availability of resources for building plant biomass.     

The root endophyte fungus Piriformospora indica leads to early flowering,higher biomass and altered secondary metabolites of the medicinal plant,Coleus forskohlii

This study was undertaken to investigate the influence of plant probiotic fungus Piriformospora indica on the medicinal plant C. forskohlii. Interaction of the C. forskohlii with the root endophyte P. indica under field conditions, results in an overall increase in aerial biomass, chlorophyll contents and phosphorus acquisition. The fungus also promoted inflorescence development, consequently the amount of p-cymene in the inflorescence increased. Growth of the root thickness was reduced in P. indica treated plants as they became fibrous, but developed more lateral roots. Because of the smaller root biomass, the content of forskolin was decreased. The symbiotic interaction of C. forskohlii with P. indica under field conditions promoted biomass production of the aerial parts of the plant including flower development. The plant aerial parts are important source of metabolites for medicinal application. Therefore we suggest that the use of the root endophyte fungus P. indica in sustainable agriculture will enhance the medicinally important chemical production.     

Exploiting leaf starch synthesis as a transient sink to elevate photosynthesis, plant productivity and yields

Improvements in plant productivity (biomass) and yield have centered on increasing the efficiency of leaf CO₂ fixation and utilization of products by non-photosynthetic sink organs. We had previously demonstrated a correlation between photosynthetic capacity, plant growth, and the extent of leaf starch synthesis utilizing starch-deficient mutants. This finding suggested that leaf starch is used as a transient photosynthetic sink to recycle inorganic phosphate and, in turn, maximize photosynthesis. To test this hypothesis, Arabidopsis thaliana and rice (Oryza sativa L.) lines were generated with enhanced capacity to make leaf starch with minimal impact on carbon partitioning to sucrose. The Arabidopsis engineered plants exhibited enhanced photosynthetic capacity; this translated into increased growth and biomass. These enhanced phenotypes were displayed by similarly engineered rice lines. Manipulation of leaf starch is a viable alternative strategy to increase photosynthesis and, in turn, the growth and yields of crop and bioenergy plants.     

Karyotype analysis,genome organization,and stable genetic transformation of the root colonizing fungus Piriformospora indica

Piriformospora indica (Basidiomycota, Sebacinales) is a root colonizing fungus which is able to increase biomass and yield of crop plants and to induce local and systemic resistance to fungal diseases and tolerance to abiotic stress. A prerequisite for the elucidation of the mode of action of this novel kind of symbiosis is knowledge of the genome organization as well as the development of tools to study and modify gene functions. Here we provide data on the karyotype and genetic transformation strategies. The fungus was shown to possess at least six chromosomes and a genome size of about 15.4–24 Mb. Sequences of the genes encoding the elongation factor 1-α (TEF) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) were used for genome size estimation through real-time PCR analysis. Chromosomal location investigated by Southern blot and expression analysis suggested that TEF and GAPDH are single-copy genes with strong and constitutive promoters. A genetic transformation system was established using a fragment of the TEF promoter region for construction of vectors carrying the selectable marker hygromycin B phosphotransferase. Results demonstrate that P. indica can be stably transformed by random genomic integration of foreign DNA and that it posses a relative small genome as compared to other members of the Basidiomycota.     

Non-pathogenic Rhizobium radiobacter F4 deploys plant beneficial activity independent of its host Piriformospora indica

The Alphaproteobacterium Rhizobium radiobacter F4 (RrF4) was originally characterized as an endofungal bacterium in the beneficial endophytic Sebacinalean fungus Piriformospora indica. Although attempts to cure P. indica from RrF4 repeatedly failed, the bacterium can easily be grown in pure culture. Here, we report on RrF4''s genome and the beneficial impact the free-living bacterium has on plants. In contrast to other endofungal bacteria, the genome size of RrF4 is not reduced. Instead, it shows a high degree of similarity to the plant pathogenic R. radiobacter (formerly: Agrobacterium tumefaciens) C58, except vibrant differences in both the tumor-inducing (pTi) and the accessor (pAt) plasmids, which can explain the loss of RrF4''s pathogenicity. Similar to its fungal host, RrF4 colonizes plant roots without host preference and forms aggregates of attached cells and dense biofilms at the root surface of maturation zones. RrF4-colonized plants show increased biomass and enhanced resistance against bacterial leaf pathogens. Mutational analysis showed that, similar to P. indica, resistance mediated by RrF4 was dependent on the plant''s jasmonate-based induced systemic resistance (ISR) pathway. Consistent with this, RrF4- and P. indica-induced pattern of defense gene expression were similar. In clear contrast to P. indica, but similar to plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, RrF4 colonized not only the root outer cortex but also spread beyond the endodermis into the stele. On the basis of our findings, RrF4 is an efficient plant growth-promoting bacterium.     

Piriformospora indica inoculation alleviates the adverse effect of NaCl stress on growth,gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

• Salinity is now an increasingly serious environmental issue that affects the growth and yield of many plants.
• In the present work, the influence of inoculation with the symbiotic fungus, Piriformospora indica, on gas exchange, water potential, osmolyte content, Na/K ratio and chlorophyll fluorescence of tomato plants under three salinity levels (0, 50, 100 and 150 mm NaCl) and three time periods (5, 10 and 15 days after exposure to salt) was investigated.
• Results indicate that P. indica inoculation improved growth parameters of tomato under salinity stress. This symbiotic fungus significantly increased photosynthetic pigment content under salinity, and more proline and glycine betaine accumulated in inoculated roots than in non‐inoculated roots. P. indica further significantly improved K⁺ content and reduced Na⁺ level under salinity treatment. After inoculation with the endophytic fungus, leaf physiological parameters, such as water potential, net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration, were all higher under the salt concentrations and durations compared with controls without P. indica. With increasing salt level and salt treatment duration, values of F₀ and qP increased but F_m, F_v/F_m, F′_v/F′_m and NPQ declined in the controls, while inoculation with P. indica improved these values.
• The results indicate that the negative effects of NaCl on tomato plants were alleviated after P. indica inoculation, probably by improving physiological parameters such as water status and photosynthesis.

     

An invasive plant provides refuge to native plant species in an intensely grazed ecosystem

Invasion by exotic plant species and herbivory can individually alter native plant species diversity, but their interactive effects in structuring native plant communities remain little studied. Many exotic plant species escape from their co-evolved specialized herbivores in their native range (in accordance with the enemy release hypothesis). When these invasive plants are relatively unpalatable, they may act as nurse plants by reducing herbivore damage on co-occurring native plants, thereby structuring native plant communities. However, the potential for unpalatable invasive plants to structure native plant communities has been little investigated. Here, we tested whether presence of an unpalatable exotic invader Opuntia ficus-indica was associated with the structure of native plant communities in an ecosystem with a long history of grazing by ungulate herbivores. Along 17 transects (each 1000 m long), we conducted a native vegetation survey in paired invaded and uninvaded plots. Plots that harboured O. ficus-indica had higher native plant species richness and Shannon–Wiener diversity H′ than uninvaded plots. However, mean species evenness J was similar between invaded and uninvaded plots. There was no significant correlation between native plant diversity and percentage plot cover by O. ficus-indica. Presence of O. ficus-indica was associated with a compositional change in native community assemblages between paired invaded and uninvaded plots. Although these results are only correlative, they suggest that unpalatable exotic plants may play an important ecological role as refugia for maintenance of native plant diversity in intensely grazed ecosystems.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Piriformospora indica</Emphasis> Alleviates Salinity by Boosting Redox Poise and Antioxidative Potential of Tomato

More than 20% of irrigated land has been influenced by salt stress, decreasing crop production. In this research, we investigated the effect of different levels of salinity (0, 50, 100 and 150 mM NaCl) and the efficiency of Piriformospora indica on growth, biochemical traits, antioxidative defense system in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). NaCl stress reduced chlorophyll content, height and biomass of plants. Higher level of salinity (150 mM) declined the plant height by 22.65%, total dry weight by 56.44% and total chlorophyll by 44.34%, however, P. indica inoculation raised plant height by 43.47%, dry weight by 69.23% and total chlorophyll content by 48.09%. Salinity stress increased H₂O₂, malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide anion and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) level in leaves and roots tomato seedlings. However, P. indica inoculation reduced H₂O₂, MDA and superoxide anion and enhanced DPPH compared to non-inoculated plants at all NaCl levels. The total phenol and flavonoids increased with NaCl treatment. On the other hand, the total phenolic and flavonoid increased more in P. indica inoculated plants compared to non-inoculated ones. Moreover, inoculation of P. indica implicated noteworthy improvement of superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), catalase (CAT), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), and glutathione reductase (GR) activity in tomato upon salinity. Notably, colonization with P. indica significantly improved the content of reduced ascorbic acid (AsA), glutathione (GSH) and redox ratio in the tomato plants under salinity resulting in reduced redox state. Our findings confirmed that salinity had negative effect on tomato seedling; however, P. indica inoculation increased tolerance to salinity by improving the content of phenolic compounds, non-enzymatic antioxidants, and increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes.     

Effects of drought-rewatering-drought on photosynthesis and growth of maize

Aims Our objective was to investigate the responses of maize photosynthesis and growth to repeated drought.Methods Maize seedlings were exposed to different soil water deficit for three weeks, then rewatering for one week, and again to different water deficit for three weeks, to examine the effects of repeated drought on photosynthesis and growth.Important findings After the first water deficit treatments, under severe drought, plant height, total leaf area of individual plant, shoot and root biomass declined significantly, also transpiration rate (T_r), stomatal conductance (G_s), intercellular CO₂ concentration (C_i), net photosynthetic rate (P_n), maximum net photosynthetic rate (A_max), but light compensation point and dark respiration rate increased significantly. Under medium drought, plant height, leaf area, and shoot biomass decreased significantly, but root biomass did not vary, hence, the ratio of roots to shoots (R/S) increased. Moreover, plants did not show significant differences in photosynthetic parameters. After rewatering, photosynthesis and growth rate of plants previously exposed to water deficit could recover to the levels of well-watered plants, but plant height and leaf area did not recover to the levels of the control. When maize were subjected to recurrent drought, plants pre-exposed to medium drought showed no significant difference in plant height, biomass, and photosynthetic parameters, but a significant decrease in leaf area, compared to plants only exposed to second medium drought. Plants pre-exposed to severe drought had significantly higher T_r, G_s, C_i, P_n, A_max, and, apparent quantum yield but significantly lower plant height, leaf area, and biomass than plants without previous exposure. These results indicated that the first severe drought significantly reduced photosynthetic capacity and maize growth, rewatering could recover photosynthesis and growth rate to the levels of well-watered plants, but could not eliminate the adverse influence of the first drought on growth. The first medium drought could stimulate the growth of maize root system and significantly increased R/S, which can enhance maize drought resistance to subsequent repeated drought, and maintain the total biomass in the control level; the first severe drought could enhance maize drought resistance to subsequent repeated drought in the aspect of photosynthesis, but could not compensate for the adverse effect of early drought on plant growth. Hence, in practice, drought hardening should be limited in the level of medium drought, and avoiding severe drought.     

Temperature relations of photosynthetic response in populations of Verbascum thapsus L.

Summary Seedlings representative of Verbascum thapsus L. populations from thermally diverse habitats were grown under uniform, controlled conditions. The plants were used to obtain temperature response curves for net photosynthesis over a range of 15–40°C. In general, all experimental plants exhibited similar rates of net photosynthesis at 20, 25, 30, and 35°C. Plants representative of cool habitat populations (high-latidude and high-altitude) had greatest rates of net photosynthesis at the lower temperatures and much lower rates at 40°C. Plants representative of warm habitat populations (low-latitude and low-altitude) exhibited rates of net photosynthesis at 40°C which were nearly twice those of plants representative of cool habitat populations. Carbon dioxide transfer resistances are discussed with reference to plant control of photosynthesis at different temperatures. Patterns of photosynthesis and resistance response among plants representative of different habitats suggest ecotypic variation has occurred only to a very limited extent. Therefore, the patterns exhibited by experimental plants suggest that Verbascum thapsus' success in a number of diverse sites is related to the ability of all members of the species to photosynthesize over a broad range of temperatures.     

Comparative proteomic analysis of the response of fibrous roots of nematode-resistant and -sensitive sweet potato cultivars to root-knot nematode <Emphasis Type="Italic">Meloidogyne incognita</Emphasis>

As a major root-knot nematode (RKN), Meloidogyne incognita causes serious losses in the yield of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.). To successfully colonize the host plant, RKNs elicit changes of dramatic physiological and morphological features in the plants. The expression of several genes is regulated as the nematode establishes its feeding site. Therefore, in this study, we analyzed the proteomes in the fibrous roots of sweet potato plants by an infection of RKN to understand the effect of the infection on the plant root regions. This study revealed differences in proteomes of the RKN-resistant sweet potato cultivar Juhwangmi and RKN-sensitive cultivar Yulmi. During plant growth, Juhwangmi plants were shown to be more resistant to M. incognita than Yulmi plants. No M. incognita egg formation was observed in Juhwangmi plants, whereas 587 egg masses were formed in Yulmi plants. Differentially expressed 64 spots were confirmed by proteomic analysis using 2-D gel electrophoresis with three spots up-regulated in the two cultivars during RKN infection. Of these 64 protein spots, 20 were identified as belonging to such different functional categories as the defense response, cell structure, and energy metabolism. This study provides insight into the molecular and biochemical mechanics of the defense response and metabolism of sweet potato plant during nematode invasion. We anticipate that this study will also provide a molecular basis for useful crop breeding and the development of nematode-tolerant plants.     

干旱-复水-再干旱处理对玉米光合能力和生长的影响

为了探求玉米(Zea mays)光合作用和生长对重复干旱的响应机制, 采用盆栽试验, 分别测定了不同程度土壤干旱处理3周时、随后复水1周时以及再次不同程度干旱处理3周时玉米幼苗光合参数和生长的变化。第一次土壤干旱处理后, 重度干旱处理显著降低玉米株高、单株总叶面积、地上部分及根系生物量以及叶片的蒸腾速率(T_r)、气孔导度(G_s)、胞间CO₂浓度(C_i)、净光合速率(P_n)和最大净光合速率(A_max), 但显著提高光补偿点和暗呼吸速率; 中度干旱处理同样显著降低玉米株高、叶面积和地上部分生物量, 但对根系生物量无影响, 因而根冠比增大, 对上述光合参数的负效应也不具有显著性。复水可使前期经受中度和重度干旱处理的玉米植株的光合能力和生长速率恢复到正常水分条件下生长的植株的水平, 但株高和叶面积没有恢复到对照水平。当玉米再次经受水分亏缺处理时, 与只遭受第二次中度或重度干旱处理的植株相比, 经历过前期中度干旱处理的植株的株高、生物量和光合参数没有显著变化, 但叶面积显著下降; 经历过前期重度干旱处理植株的T_r、G_s、C_i、P_n、A_max和表观量子效率显著升高, 而株高、叶面积和生物量显著降低。综上所述, 第一次重度干旱处理显著降低玉米叶片的光合能力和生长, 复水可使光合能力和生长速率恢复到正常水分条件下生长植株的水平, 但不能消除前期干旱对生长产生的不利影响。前期中度干旱可以刺激玉米根系的生长和显著提高根冠比, 有利于提高对二次干旱的抵抗能力, 并使总的生物量保持在对照水平, 而前期重度干旱处理虽然在光合作用上能提高植株对二次干旱的抵御能力, 但不能弥补前期干旱处理对生长的不利影响。因此, 在生产实践中, 如果进行抗旱锻炼, 应限制在中度干旱水平, 避免重度干旱。     

Quantitative Trait Locus Mapping and Candidate Gene Analysis for Plant Architecture Traits Using Whole Genome Re-Sequencing in Rice

Plant breeders have focused on improving plant architecture as an effective means to increase crop yield. Here, we identify the main-effect quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for plant shape-related traits in rice (Oryza sativa) and find candidate genes by applying whole genome re-sequencing of two parental cultivars using next-generation sequencing. To identify QTLs influencing plant shape, we analyzed six traits: plant height, tiller number, panicle diameter, panicle length, flag leaf length, and flag leaf width. We performed QTL analysis with 178 F₇ recombinant in-bred lines (RILs) from a cross of japonica rice line ‘SNUSG1’ and indica rice line ‘Milyang23’. Using 131 molecular markers, including 28 insertion/deletion markers, we identified 11 main- and 16 minor-effect QTLs for the six traits with a threshold LOD value > 2.8. Our sequence analysis identified fifty-four candidate genes for the main-effect QTLs. By further comparison of coding sequences and meta-expression profiles between japonica and indica rice varieties, we finally chose 15 strong candidate genes for the 11 main-effect QTLs. Our study shows that the whole-genome sequence data substantially enhanced the efficiency of polymorphic marker development for QTL fine-mapping and the identification of possible candidate genes. This yields useful genetic resources for breeding high-yielding rice cultivars with improved plant architecture.     

Root restriction as a factor in photosynthetic acclimation of cotton seedlings grown in elevated carbon dioxide

Interactive effects of root restriction and atmospheric CO₂ enrichment on plant growth, photosynthetic capacity, and carbohydrate partitioning were studied in cotton seedlings (Gossypium hirsutum L.) grown for 28 days in three atmospheric CO₂ partial pressures (270, 350, and 650 microbars) and two pot sizes (0.38 and 1.75 liters). Some plants were transplanted from small pots into large pots after 20 days. Reduction of root biomass resulting from growth in small pots was accompanied by decreased shoot biomass and leaf area. When root growth was less restricted, plants exposed to higher CO₂ partial pressures produced more shoot and root biomass than plants exposed to lower levels of CO₂. In small pots, whole plant biomass and leaf area of plants grown in 270 and 350 microbars of CO₂ were not significantly different. Plants grown in small pots in 650 microbars of CO₂ produced greater total biomass than plants grown in 350 microbars, but the dry weight gain was found to be primarily an accumulation of leaf starch. Reduced photosynthetic capacity of plants grown at elevated levels of CO₂ was clearly associated with inadequate rooting volume. Reductions in net photosynthesis were not associated with decreased stomatal conductance. Reduced carboxylation efficiency in response to CO₂ enrichment occurred only when root growth was restricted suggesting that ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase activity may be responsive to plant source-sink balance rather than to CO₂ concentration as a single factor. When root-restricted plants were transplanted into large pots, carboxylation efficiency and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate regeneration capacity increased indicating that acclimation of photosynthesis was reversible. Reductions in photosynthetic capacity as root growth was progressively restricted suggest sink-limited feedback inhibition as a possible mechanism for regulating net photosynthesis of plants grown in elevated CO₂.     

Enhanced leaf photosynthesis as a target to increase grain yield: insights from transgenic rice lines with variable Rieske FeS protein content in the cytochrome b6/f complex

Although photosynthesis is the most important source for biomass and grain yield, a lack of correlation between photosynthesis and plant yield among different genotypes of various crop species has been frequently observed. Such observations contribute to the ongoing debate whether enhancing leaf photosynthesis can improve yield potential. Here, transgenic rice plants that contain variable amounts of the Rieske FeS protein _in the cytochrome (cyt) b₆/f complex between 10 and 100% of wild‐type levels have been used to investigate the effect of reductions of these proteins on photosynthesis, plant growth and yield. Reductions of the cyt b₆/f complex did not affect the electron transport rates through photosystem I but decreased electron transport rates through photosystem II, leading to concomitant decreases in CO₂ assimilation rates. There was a strong control of plant growth and grain yield by the rate of leaf photosynthesis, leading to the conclusion that enhancing photosynthesis at the single‐leaf level would be a useful target for improving crop productivity and yield both via conventional breeding and biotechnology. The data here also suggest that changing photosynthetic electron transport rates via manipulation of the cyt b₆/f complex could be a potential target for enhancing photosynthetic capacity in higher plants.     

UV-B increases the harvest index of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

The effects of small changes in natural UV-B on the photosynthesis, pigmentation, flowering and yield of bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Label) were studied. To obtain a relatively natural growth environment, the plants were grown in small, half-open greenhouses of UV-transmitting Plexiglas of different thickness (3 and 5 mm), resulting in an 8% difference in the weighted UV-B reaching the plants. Although the UV-B doses used did not significantly influence photosynthesis on a leaf area basis during vegetative growth, important changes in biomass allocation were noted. A UV-B-O induced reduction in leaf area during the period of vegetative growth resulted in decreased dry weight after 57 d. During the flowering and pod-filling stages (57–79.d after planting), however, plants grown at high UV-B retained their photosynthetic capacity longer: maximal photosynthesis, chlorophyll and N content of the leaves were higher under the higher UV-B dose at a plant age of 79 d. Combined with an increased allocation under the higher UV-B dose of both N and biomass to the pods, this resulted in a small increase in yield and an important increase in harvest index with increased UV-B.