Social organization of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, Central China

Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys were observed for 197 days from 2000 to 2003 in the Qinling Mountains, Central China. The study group was provisioned in 2001 allowing detailed observations of social organization based on individual identification. The group was composed of 45–82 monkeys, all of which belonged to one of 6–8 one-male units (OMU) that foraged to form one big group. The average unit size was 9.0±2.3, 8±1.5 in the winter and 11.1±2.0 in the spring. Immigration or emigration of one-male units to or from the foraging group was observed, as was migration of individuals in and out of OMU, especially for by subadult females and juveniles. Group size therefore tended to fluctuate with the number of OMU and the number of young monkeys present in the group. The OMU in the study area were smaller than those in Shennongjia area. The factors influencing the size of these OMU and the entire group are discussed.     

Social play behavior in infant Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Qinling Mountains, China

We describe the development of social play behavior and assess factors influencing the development of play in infant Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana). Infant snub-nosed monkeys began to exhibit social play at 3 months of age, when they spent an average 0.89% of time engaging in this behavior (range: 0.7-1.12%). At 6 months of age, there was a significant increase in the proportion of time spent in social play, averaging 9.78% of observation time (range: 4.92-17.08%). However, from 7 to 9 months of age during the winter, social play decreased gradually before rising again from 10 months of age in the spring. Play behavior in infant snub-nosed monkeys is influenced by environmental temperature. Males were observed to play more than females, although further data on this are required. Social rank did not influence the social play of wild Sichuan snub-nosed monkey infants.     

Dominance relationships among one-male units in a provisioned free-ranging band of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, China

We studied the dominance relationships among one-male units (OMUs) in a provisioned free-ranging band of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains of central China from 2001 to 2005. The band was composed of 6-8 OMUs that stayed in the band for several years. Linear dominance orders could be detected using displacement interactions with directional asymmetry among OMUs in 82.3+/-5% of interactions, and ambiguous and reversed interactions in 17.7+/-5%. The dominance rank of OMUs was positively related with the duration of their stay in the band, and this may be attributed to the association of the resident male with adult females, rather than the fighting ability of resident males, as males do not fight seriously with each other. Subordinate units were observed to merge with dominant units resulting in an elevation of their rank order. The linear dominance relationship among OMUs in the Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys may have evolved as a result of competition for preferred food trees.     

秦岭川金丝猴一周岁内个体的行为发育

2003年3月至2004年5月在陕西周至国家自然保护区的玉皇庙地区,采用目标动物取样法(Focal ani-mal sampling)对2003年出生的5只金丝猴个体行为发育进行了观察,应用全事件记录法(All-occurrences record-ing)进行数据的收集。结果表明23日龄婴儿首次从母亲怀内爬出在树枝上活动,68日龄开始在树上攀爬跳跃,5月龄主动采食树叶和啃投食区食物,6月龄跟随社群迁移。依据婴幼儿主要行为首次出现时间及其变化,把1周岁内个体发育分为5个时期,即完全依赖期、探索外部世界期、融入社群期、适应生存期和逐步独立期。1周岁内婴幼儿活动和休息的地方是母亲怀里、其它个体怀里、树枝上和地面上。随着发育,婴幼儿在这些地方停留的时间也在变化。1周岁内婴幼儿在母亲怀中的时间与年龄存在明显的负相关,在其它个体怀里的时间与年龄也呈显著负相关。虽然独自在树上的时间与年龄相关性不显著,但在地面上停留的时间与年龄呈正相关。     

Postconflict behavior among female Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus roxellana within one-male units in the Qinling Mountains,China

<正> For group-living primates, the information on postconflict management is crucial for understanding primate competitionand cooperation. However, such information is poorly known for snub-nosed monkeys, especially for wild populations. Inthis study, from September 2007 to June 2008, we investigated postconflict behavior among adult females Sichuan snub-nosedmonkeys Rhinopithecas roxellana within one-male units in a wild, provisioned group in the Qinling Mountains of China bymeans of the time-rule method and the PC-MC method. We obtained a total of 81 PC-MC pairs and each individual was involvedin only 0.004 aggressive behavior per observation hour. The first affiliative behavior was more likely to occur within the firstminute after a conflict. The postconflict affiliative behaviors most often seen were contact-sit, embrace and grooming. The affiliativecontacts between adult females occur due to selective attraction, i.e. reconciliation. The pattern of postconflict affiliationdemonstrates that the R. roxellana belongs to a tolerant species     

Postconflict behavior among female Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus roxellana within one-male units in the Qinling Mountains, China

For group-living primates, the information on postconflict management is crucial for understanding primate competition and cooperation. However, such information is poorly known for snub-nosed monkeys, especially for wild populations. In this study, from September 2007 to June 2008, we investigated postconflict behavior among adult females Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus roxellana within one-male units in a wild, provisioned group in the Qinling Mountains of China by means of the time-rule method and the PC-MC method. We obtained a total of 81 PC-MC pairs and each individual was involved in only 0.004 aggressive behavior per observation hour. The first affiliative behavior was more likely to occur within the first minute after a conflict. The postconflict affiliative behaviors most often seen were contact-sit, embrace and grooming. The affiliative contacts between adult females occur due to selective attraction, I.e. Reconciliation. The pattern of postconflict affiliation demonstrates that the R. Roxellana belongs to a tolerant species.     

Female social dynamics in a provisioned free-ranging band of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, China

Little information is available on the social dynamics of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana). Here, we provide 5-year observational data on a provisioned free-ranging band in the Qinling Mountains, central China, from October 2001 to December 2005. The results of this study suggested that females place a high priority on maintaining long-term relationships with other female in their one-male units (OMUs). Females had more social interactions with unit members than with nonunit individuals. They showed relatively high rates of affiliation with their unit females, intermediate levels with the resident males, and low levels with individuals outside the unit. Females had few interactions with other resident males. Social interactions, especially affiliative interactions, were more symmetrical between focal females and their unit females than between focal females and the resident males. Thus female social interactions appeared to resemble those of other female-bonded primate societies. On the other hand, female transfers occurred sometimes. We recorded 11 cases of female immigration and 5 cases of female disappearance, 1 case of female intraband shift, and 2 cases of "merging of OMUs," which suggested that unit females might be loose-knit in this species. We discussed influencing factors on female Sichuan snub-nosed monkey social dynamics, by comparing them with those of Hamadryas and gelada baboons that also have multilevel societies.     

秦岭川金丝猴的一种自发性双足姿势的脚偏好

与手偏好相比较,脚偏好被认为是研究大脑半球中语言功能偏侧性调控表达的一种更佳的行为预测指标。当前国际科学界对于人类大脑半球功能不对称性和肢体偏好进化起源的关注,有力地推动了非人灵长类物种肢体偏好行为学研究,其中关于树栖灵长类物种的相关研究,对身体姿势在灵长类肢体偏好表达的理解有十分关键作用。川金丝猴(Rhinopithecus roxellana)是我特有濒危灵长类物种,主要营树栖生活。本研究首次关注秦岭川金丝猴自发性非移动双足姿势(双足叠放)的脚偏好。研究发现在个体水平上每个焦点动物均表现出明显的脚偏好,在群组水平上表现出显著的右脚偏好,脚偏好表达无显著性别差异,其研究结果支持“姿势起源理论”。本文首次呈现野生旧大陆猴物种群组水平脚偏好的研究证据。     

秦岭川金丝猴冬季和春季在自然栖息地的空间利用

2000年9月到2003年3月共计197天的时间里,我们采用目标动物取样法(Focalanimalsampling)和行为的全事件记录法(Alloccurrencesampling)对一群生活在秦岭北坡周至保护区内的秦岭金丝猴(Rhinopithecusroxellana)在自然栖息地内空间利用的进行了研究。当猴群在离开人工投食区进行自由活动时我们开始收集数据。结果表明:秦岭川金丝猴在不同年龄性别组的个体对植被的空间利用明显不同,它们花费每天活动的14%的时间在地面上活动,53%时间在树叉处活动,33%的时间在树冠中间活动。与其它年龄性别个体相比,成年雄性有27%的观察时间在地上活动,并且20%的取食时间或29%的休息时间是在地上的,明显地高于其它年龄性别组的个体。群体迁移时,成年雄性有53%的时间在地上移动,而只有13%的时间是在树冠层移动的。在通过不同树冠的时候,成年雄性经常会同时抓住两边再把身体摆过去。它们也经常下到地上迁移而回避在树间跳跃。相比之下,亚成年雌性和青少年猴更加经常地在低植被层和树冠层中找食和休息。它们明显地比成年猴更加频繁地在树冠中移动,却很少下地。它们还经常使用跳跃的方式通过树冠间的空隙。从观察到摔下树的事例分析,青少年猴从树上摔下来的风险比成年猴大。本文进而讨论了影响秦岭金丝猴空间分布和移动的因素,比如说身体的重量等.     

秦岭川金丝猴的昼间活动时间分配

1999年12月至2004年11月,通过野外直接跟踪观察,采用焦点取样和瞬时记录的方法,对秦岭川金丝猴西梁猴群的昼间活动时间分配进行了研究。将川金丝猴的昼间活动定义为摄食、休息、理毛、移动和其他行为5 种类型,结果发现：川金丝猴昼间活动中有两个摄食高峰,分别在每天的上午和下午,中午有一个较长时间的休息期。川金丝猴昼间的主要行为类型是摄食和休息（约占全部活动时间的62%）,各种行为依所占时间比例依次为：摄食（34.64 ± 1.70%）、休息（26.83 ± 1.69%）、理毛（11.58 ± 0.96%）、移动（18.93 ±1.08%）和其他行为（8.02 ± 0.82%）。在不同季节各种行为类型所占时间比例有明显的变化,表现为摄食和休息行为占昼间活动时间比例在夏（75.00%）、秋季（74.15%） 大于春（52.74%）、冬季（56.64%）;而移动、理毛和其他行为所占时间比例之和在夏（25.00%）、秋季（ 25.85%） 则明显小于冬（ 43.4%）、春季（47.3%）。不同季节间的活动时间分配经非参数检验（ Kruskal Wallis H test,N = 199）,理毛行为（ x² =11.438,df = 3,P < 0.05）有显著差异,摄食（x² = 20.469,df = 3,P < 0.01）、休息（x² = 27.235,df = 3,P < 0.01）、移动（x² = 24.110,df = 3,P < 0.01） 和其他行为（ x² = 60.810,df = 3,P < 0.01） 季节间差异非常显著;除摄食行为外,其余各行为类型的时间分配在不同性别-年龄组间也存在显著差异（P < 0.05）。     

神农架川金丝猴投食群的母婴关系

灵长类动物母亲的育婴行为不仅对后代的存活起着关键作用,而且对婴猴的发育和成年后的社会交往有着重大影响,因此母-婴关系一直是灵长类学研究的热点之一。为了解川金丝猴的母-婴关系,探讨川金丝猴母-婴关系个体差异的影响因素,我们于2013年3月至2014年10月,以母-婴间相对距离表示照料强度,对神农架川金丝猴的母-婴照料关系以及母亲照料强度个体差异的影响因素进行了定量研究。结果表明：母亲照料行为强度、母亲对阿姨行为的容忍与婴猴年龄相关,限制行为与婴猴年龄不相关。身体接触与婴猴年龄不相关;腹部接触以及母-婴相对距离小于1 m与婴猴年龄呈负相关;相对距离1 m至5 m、相对距离5 m至10 m和相对距离大于10 m与婴猴年龄呈正相关;母亲对阿姨行为的拒绝与婴猴年龄呈负相关;母亲对婴猴的限制行为与年龄不相关。总的来说,即随着婴猴成长,母婴间距离越来越远,母亲也逐渐减少对婴猴的保护。母亲的生育经验、婴猴性别、婴猴出生先后和社会单元大小对神农架川金丝猴母婴关系没有显著影响,补食群丰富的食物资源和群内雌性友好的关系可能是导致本结果的原因。     

秦岭川金丝猴一个投食群等级关系的研究

2002年7月至2003年6月,采用焦点动物取样法和全事件记录法对秦岭山脉周至国家级自然保护区玉皇庙西梁川金丝猴投食群一雄多雌社会单元内部和社会单元间的攻击和屈服行为的指向和次数进行记录,应用计算优势指数的方法对社会单元内不同性别年龄组和社会单元间的等级进行排列。结果表明,在每一个社会单元内部成年雄性居最高地位,所有成年雌性占有第二阶层,亚成体处于第三阶层,青少年个体处于最低层。每个社会单元内成年雌性在一年内的等级序列并不是固定不变的,一般是雌性在产仔后顺位明显上升。八个社会单元在交配阶段和产仔阶段等级结构不同,等级最高的社会单元以及等级最低的社会单元的等级顺序没有发生变化,等级接近的社会单元间的等级顺序发生变化,其变化的原因可能主要与社会单元内部成员相互协作进行攻击有关。     

神农架川金丝猴投食群的攻击行为及等级序列

为探讨人工补食条件下川金丝猴的攻击行为在维持社会等级中的作用,2007 年1 ～ 6 月,采用行为取样法
和全事件记录法对神农架自然保护区投食群的攻击行为及等级序列进行研究。我们共记录到8 种攻击行为,按
频次多少依次为:咕叫、抓打、追赶、瞪眼、瞪咕、驱赶、抢食、打架。攻击行为的发起者在性别间和年龄间
均存在显著差异,雄性多于雌性,年龄间按次数多少依次为:成年猴、亚成年猴、青年猴、少年猴;承受者在
性别间和年龄间差异均不显著。社会单元内与单元间攻击行为差异显著,前者多于后者。一雄多雌单元间的等
级高低依次为:长毛单元、白头单元、红头单元。基于单元内攻击行为较多,建议适当扩大投食场,给每只个
体分别投食,以减少因争食发生的攻击行为。     

Seasonal home range changes of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains of China

The seasonal changes in home range and habitat use of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana, have been studied by radio tracking and direct observation in the Qinling Mountains of China. The home range size was 14.1 km(2) in spring, 9.5 km(2) in summer, 12.1 km(2) in autumn and 12.3 km(2) in winter; the total area used was 22.5 km(2). The area of the home range is closely correlated with the distribution and abundance of food resources. Seasonal change in the home range area is correlated with the phenology of the vegetation. An unusually large home range is a unique characteristic of this monkey.     

秦岭南坡川金丝猴的食物组成及季节性变化

2013年3月至2014年2月,在秦岭南坡观音山自然保护区大坪峪颜家沟内选取一群半野生川金丝猴的成年个体作为研究对象,采用瞬时扫描取样法收集其觅食的食物类型数据,目的是为该猴群建立食谱,并通过对比不同季节内觅取的食物组成差异探讨秦岭南坡川金丝猴如何应对喜食食物的季节性缺乏。结果表明：秦岭南坡川金丝猴共采食53种植物（包括34种乔木、13种灌木、6种藤本植物）和4种大型真菌,分别占取食植物组成的64.3%、25.3%、8.0%和2.2%,春、夏、秋、冬季节取食种类和多样性指数分别为20种(3.93)、19种(3.73)、21种(3.87)和25种(4.12)。在秦岭南坡川金丝猴的食物组成中,地衣占总觅食记录的22%;树叶占20%,其中嫩叶9%和成熟叶11%;种子、树皮、芽苞、果实和叶柄分别占16%、15%、11%、 9%和7%。该猴群觅取的植物部位具有明显的季节性差异。春季,对树皮和芽苞的觅食量较高,分别为28%和25%;夏季,增加了对成熟叶的采食量(29%),而减少了芽苞的觅取量(5%);秋季,以取食种子和果实为主,分别占总觅食的48% 和16%;冬季,地衣的采食量达到最大值（41%）。觅食的食物组成与食物的可获得性呈正相关性(R = 0.984, P < 0.01),这与大多数叶猴的适应策略类似,在喜食食物短缺的冬季,它们选择更多的地衣和树皮为食,同时它们采食的种类和食物多样性也有相应增加。     

依据取食优势判断秦岭川金丝猴群OMU的等级地位

2005 年5 月至2006 年5 月,对秦岭北坡周至国家级自然保护区玉皇庙地区一个人工投食川金丝猴群的取食规律进行了研究,选择该猴群各一雄多雌单元(OMU)下地并进入投食区的取食时间、取食次数、取食顺序这3 个参数,通过计算各OMU 取食时的优势指数量化其取食优势从而对该猴群8 OMU 的等级地位进行了判断,结果表明这8 个OMU 的等级地位为:罗盘单元> 甲板单元> 八字头单元> 井字头单元> 刀疤单元> 朋克单元> 瑞星单元> 方片单元。此外,通过Spearman Correlation Test 将该方法的研究结果与利用攻击- 屈服行为优势指数法得到的研究结果进行了比较,二者具有极显著的正相关关系(R =0.976,P < 0.001)。可见, 利用取食参数的优势指数法判断各OMU 等级地位具有一定的可行性,且比攻击- 屈服行为的优势指数法在操作上更为简易,并以此试图为野外投食及笼养条件下非人灵长类等级地位的研究提供一个方法上的参考。     

野生川金丝猴一个全雄青年猴群的同性爬背行为

本研究采用行为取样方法,首次对秦岭野生川金丝猴全雄青年群中的同性爬跨行为进行报道。研究中我们共观察到21 次同性爬背行为,其平均持续时间为5.53 ± 3.11s;雄性同性爬背发生前的行为中以玩耍行为(47.62% )和3 种不同姿势的邀配模仿行为(42.85% )为主;而同性爬背行为发生后则主要为彼此间的相互理毛行为(47.62% )和玩耍行为(23.81% )。对比先前婴幼猴时期的相关研究结果,青年猴同性爬背行为前邀配模仿资势的多样化在一定程度上体现了野生状态下雄性川金丝猴个体青少年阶段的性行为发育进程。考虑到川金丝猴全雄群的社会结构,青年猴同性爬背行为具有巩固社群稳定和加强个体关系的功能。此外,研究中观察到76.19% 的同性爬背行为发生在昼间休息期之后的第一个小时内,这可能是“睡眠与觉醒循环”对性激素的反调节作用所致。