Identification by photoaffinity labeling of the extracellular N-terminal domain of PAC1 receptor as the major binding site for PACAP

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) exerts many crucial biological functions through the interaction with its specific PAC1 receptor (PAC1-R), a class B G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). To identify the binding sites of PACAP in the PAC1-R, three peptide derivatives containing a photoreactive p-benzoyl-phenylalanine (Bpa) residue were developed. These photosensitive PACAP analogs were fully biologically active and competent to displace radiolabeled Ac-PACAP27 from the PAC1-R. Subsequently, the ¹²⁵I-labeled photoprobes were used to anchor the PAC1-R expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Photolabeling led to the formation of two protein complexes of 76 and 67 kDa, representing different glycosylated forms of the receptor. Proteinase and chemical cleavages of the peptide-receptor complexes revealed that ¹²⁵I[Bpa⁰, Nle¹⁷]PACAP27, ¹²⁵I[Bpa⁶, Nle¹⁷]PACAP27 and ¹²⁵I[Nle¹⁷, Bpa²²]PACAP27 covalently labeled the Ser⁹⁸ - Met¹¹¹ segment, the Ser¹²⁴ - Glu¹²⁵ dipeptide and the Ser¹⁴¹ - Met¹⁷² fragment, respectively. Taking into account the topology of the PAC1-R, these segments are mainly located within the extracellular N-terminal domain, indicating that this PAC1-R domain is the major binding site of PACAP27. The present study constitutes the first characterization of the binding domains of PACAP to its specific receptor and suggests heterogeneity within the binding mode of peptide ligands to class B GPCRs.     

B族G蛋白偶联受体PAC1可调控表达体系的建立

PAC1是神经肽垂体腺苷酸环化酶激活多肽(Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide,PACAP)的特异受体,属于B族G蛋白偶联受体,介导PACAP的神经递质、神经调质、神经保护、抗神经损伤及调控神经再生等功能,PAC1高表达和神经损伤、肿瘤等生理病理过程密切相关。为了深入了解PAC1的功能,构建PAC1可调控表达的细胞系,通过优化的四环素控制表达系统实现PAC1在中国仓鼠卵巢(Chinese hamster ovary,CHO)细胞的强力霉素(doxycycline,Dox)依赖的可控表达。首先通过双酶切将编码PAC1和增强型黄色荧光蛋白(EYFP,enhanced yellow fluorescent protein)的融和基因PAC1-EYFP克隆到pTRE-Tight载体上,获得重组载体pTRE-PAC1-EYFP;基因测序鉴定正确后将新型的四环素调节元件载体pTet-on advanced和反应元件载体pTRE-PAC1-EYFP分别转入CHO细胞中,G418和潮霉素(Hygromycin)双抗筛选阳性克隆PAC1-Tet-CHO,使用梯度浓度四环素类似物强力霉素Dox诱导PAC1-EYFP表达,48 h后检测受体表达水平,并通过MTT法检测不同PAC1表达水平的细胞增殖活性。荧光检测和Western印迹结果显示,成功获得了具有良好诱导性的Dox依赖的PAC1可控表达的细胞系,这些细胞株在传10代后仍能稳定地可控表达PAC1。MTT结果显示PAC1表达水平越高,细胞增殖活性越强。成功所构建的Dox依赖的PAC1可控表达细胞系,为PAC1的生物学功能的深入研究奠定了基础。     

Secondary conformational conversion is involved in glycosaminoglycans-mediated cellular uptake of the cationic cell-penetrating peptide PACAP

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) contribute to the cellular uptake of cationic cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs). However, molecular details about the contributions of GAGs in CPP internalization remain unclear. In this study, we examined the cellular uptake mechanism of the arginine-rich CPP pituitary adenylate-cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP). We observed that the uptake efficacy of PACAP is dependent on the expression of cell surface GAGs. As the binding of PACAP to sulfated GAGs induced a random coil-to-α-helix conformational conversion, we investigated the role of the helical formation in PACAP internalization. Whereas this secondary structure was not crucial for efficient internalization in GAGs-deficient cells, PACAP α-helix was essential for GAGs-dependent uptake.     

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) immunolocalization in lymphoid tissues of the rat

Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide (PACAP) is a novel peptide isolated from the ovine hypothalamus. PACAP exists in 2 molecular forms with 27 (PACAP27) or 38 (PACAP38) amino acid residues. PACAP localization was studied by immunohistochemical methods in central (bone marrow and thymus) and peripheral (spleen, lymph nodes and duodenal mucosa) lymphoid tissues with antisera raised against PACAP27 or PACAP38. PACAP-positive cells were found in all lymphoid tissues examined. These cells were highly positive for PACAP38 but were negative for PACAP27. Morphologically, they were small mononuclear cells with relatively scarce cytoplasm and lymphocyte-like features. PACAP38-positive cells were abundant in peripheral lymphoid tissues (i.e., mesenteric lymph nodes). In the duodenal mucosa, PACAP38-positive cells were located either in the lamina propria or epithelium. These results suggest that PACAP38-positive cells are present within lymphoid tissues and may represent a lymphocyte-like cell subpopulation that has a potential role in cell-to-cell interactions in the immune system and in the integrated communication between neuroendocrine and immune systems.     

基因重组PACAP 27衍生多肽RP2制备及促角膜上皮细胞增殖研究

利用基因工程技术高效制备具有促进角膜上皮细胞增殖功能的垂体腺苷酸环化酶激活肽(PACAP 27)衍生多肽RP2,在细胞水平初步研究其生物学作用,为其用于角膜损伤治疗提供实验基础。采用基因重组技术表达重组肽RP2,经Chitin-Beads和HPLC纯化、SDS-PAGE和质谱鉴定后,研究其对小鼠角膜上皮细胞增殖的影响。实验结果表明:利用基因重组技术制备的PACAP 27衍生多肽RP2的分子量为3.3 k Da,纯度达96%;分别用重组肽RP2、PACAP 27及PBS作用于小鼠角膜上皮细胞,处理24 h及48 h时,RP2处理组角膜上皮细胞增殖率分别为(49.6±3.1)%、(93.0±1.7)%,PACAP 27处理组细胞增殖率分别为(29.0±2.4)%、(78.8±2.6)%,PBS对照组细胞增殖率为(20.2±1.1)%,(40.9±3.3)%。利用建立的重组多肽制备技术条件,可实现PACAP衍生多肽RP2高效制备,制备的RP2可有效促进角膜上皮细胞的增殖,从而有望成为一种新型角膜损伤治疗候选药物。     

Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) Regulation of Sympathetic Neuron Neuropeptide Y and Catecholamine Expression

Abstract: Two forms of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), the 38- and 27-amino-acid forms (PACAP38 and PACAP27, respectively), which share amino acid sequence homology with vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), were evaluated for their abilities to regulate sympathetic neuron catecholamine and neuropeptide Y (NPY) expression. PACAP38 and PACAP27 potently and efficaciously stimulated NPY and catecholamine secretion in primary cultured superior cervical ganglion (SCG) neurons; 100- to 1,000-fold higher concentrations of VIP were required to modulate secretion, suggesting that SCG neurons express the PACAP-selective type I receptor. PACAP38 elicited a sustained seven- to ninefold increase in the rate of NPY secretion and three-fold stimulation in the rate of catecholamine release. PACAP38 and PACAP27 produced parallel neuronal NPY and catecholamine release, but cellular levels of NPY and catecholamines were differentially regulated. Sympathetic neuron NPY content was decreased, whereas cellular total catecholamine levels were elevated by the PACAP peptides; total NPY and catecholamine levels (secreted plus cellular content) were increased. In concert with the increased total peptide and transmitter production, pro-NPY and tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA levels were elevated. Furthermore, PACAP38 was more efficacious than PACAP27 in regulating pro-NPY and tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA. SCG neuronal expression of mRNA encoding the type I PACAP receptor further supported the studies demonstrating that sympathetic neuronal levels of NPY and catecholamine content and secretion and mRNA are differentially regulated by the PACAP peptides.     

High levels of vasoactive intestinal peptide/pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide receptor mRNA expression in primary and tumor lymphoid cells

Neuropeptides exert a variety of putative immunomodulatory actions. Despite the molecular cloning of multiple forms of receptors for several neuropeptides with putative immunomodulatory effects, including vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), the related peptide pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), the opiate peptides, tachykinins, somatostatin and corticotropin-releasing factor, it has not been reported that any of the receptor genes are expressed at significant levels in cells of the immune system. The low level of expression of these receptors and lack of knowledge concerning receptor subtype has impeded progress in understanding how neuropeptides regulate immune function. For example, it is not understood why VIP produces immunomodulatory effects at concentrations far below its receptor-binding affinity. Receptors for VIP and PACAP have recently been cloned. We show here by Northern blot analysis that the VIP/PACAP₁ receptor mRNA is present in total RNA prepared from mouse spleen B- and T-lymphocytes. The VIP/PACAP₁ receptor mRNA was also present in human peripheral blood lymphocytes, and in a B-lymphocyte and a myelocytic cell line. The mRNA for a second form of the receptor, the VIP/PACAP₂ receptor, was not expressed at detectable levels in normal cells, but was detected in several human T-cell lines and a murine mast cell line. The results indicate that VIP/PACAP₁ and perhaps VIP/PACAP₂ receptors mediate the diverse effects of VIP and PACAP on immune cells.     

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), a new vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)-like peptide in the respiratory tract

Summary Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) is a vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)-like peptide recently isolated from ovine hypothalami. Nerve fibers displaying PACAP immunoreactivity were found in the respiratory tract of rats, guinea pigs, ferrets, pigs, sheep and squirrel monkeys. A moderate supply of PACAP-immunoreactive fibers was seen in the nasal mucosa of guinea pigs. Few to moderate numbers of PACAP-containing fibers occurred in the tracheo-bronchial wall of rats, guinea pigs, ferrets, pigs, sheep and squirrel monkeys. The fibers were distributed beneath the epithelium, around blood vessels and seromucous glands, and among bundles of smooth muscle. In the lungs, the immunoreactive fibers were observed close to small bronchioli. A few PACAP-immunoreactive nerve cell bodies were seen in the sphenopalatine and otic ganglia of guinea pigs. Simultaneous double immunostaining of the respiratory tract of sheep and ferrets revealed that all PACAP-containing nerve fibers stored VIP. We suggest that neuronal PACAP may take part in the regulation of smooth muscle tone and glandular secretion.     

The expression of PAC1 increases in the degenerative thymus and low dose PACAP protects female mice from cyclophosphamide induced thymus atrophy

Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide with cytoprotective ability mediated by its specific receptor PAC1. In this research, firstly the thymus index and the expression of PAC1 in the normal and degenerative thymus with different gender were assayed; secondly PACAP in different dose was used to treat the female mice with cyclophosphamide (CPS) and the changes in thymus index, the expression of PAC1, histopathology, apoptosis, oxidative status and the caspase 3 activity in thymus were determined and compared. It was found that in the mice of age from 1 to 9 weeks in the stage of sex development, the thymus index was significantly higher in female mice than in male mice. And it was found for the first time that the PAC1 expression level in thymus of female mice was significantly higher than that of male mice and the expression of the PAC1 and PACAP increased significantly in the degenerative thymus induced by CPS. After PACAP was co-injected with CPS to the female mice, it was shown that only low dose (1 nmol/kg) of PACAP promoted the thymus index, inhibited the cell apoptosis, ameliorated the oxidative status and decreased the caspase activity significantly, while high dose (10 nmol/kg) of PACAP had no significant protective effects against CPS-induced thymus atrophy. It was concluded that the expression of PAC1 in the thymus changes in reverse ratio with thymus index and in direct ratio with cell apoptosis and only low dose of PACAP had positive effects against the CPS-induced thymus atrophy.     

Anorexigenic effects of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide and vasoactive intestinal peptide in the chick brain are mediated by corticotrophin-releasing factor

Intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide-38 (PACAP) or vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) inhibits feeding in chicks. However, the underlying anorexigenic mechanism(s) has not yet been investigated. The present study investigated whether these peptides influence the activity of corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) neural pathways in the brain of chicks. Firstly, we found that ICV injections of PACAP and VIP increased plasma corticosterone concentrations. The corticosterone-releasing effect of PACAP was completely attenuated by co-injection of astressin, a CRF receptor antagonist, but this effect was only partial for VIP. These results demonstrated that CRF neurons mediate the actions of PACAP and, to a lesser extent, VIP, and suggest that the signaling mechanisms differ between the two peptides. This difference may arise from the two peptides interacting with different receptors because the corticosterone-releasing effect of PACAP, but not VIP, was completely attenuated by co-injection of PACAP (6–38), a PACAP receptor antagonist. Finally, we examined the effect of ICV co-injection of astressin on the anorexigenic effects of PACAP and VIP and found that the effects of both peptides were attenuated by astressin. Overall, the present study suggests that the anorexigenic effects of PACAP and VIP are mediated by the activation of CRF neurons.     

Characterization of Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide 38 (PACAP38)-, PACAP27-, and Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide-Stimulated Responses in N1E-115 Neuroblastoma Cells

Abstract: In this study, the effects of three related peptides, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide 38 (PACAP38), PACAP27, and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), on cyclic AMP (cAMP) accumulation and intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) were compared in N1E-115 cells. PACAP38 and PACAP27 stimulated cAMP accumulation up to 60-fold with EC₅₀ values of 0.54 and 0.067 n M , respectively. The effect of VIP on cAMP accumulation was less potent. The binding of ¹²⁵I-PACAP27 to intact cells was inhibited by PACAP38 and PACAP27 (IC₅₀ values of 0.44 and 0.55 n M , respectively) but not by VIP. In fura-2-loaded cells, both PACAP38 and PACAP27 increased [Ca²⁺]_i with EC₅₀ values around 10 n M . The interactions of these three peptides with ionomycin, a Ca²⁺ ionophore, and 4β-phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), an activator of protein kinase C, were also determined. Ionomycin increased the cAMP accumulation caused by all three peptides. With low concentrations of PACAP38 or PACAP27, the effect of PMA was inhibitory, whereas at higher concentrations of PACAP (>1 n M ), the effect of PMA was stimulatory. Similar to other agents that elevate cAMP, PACAP38 was an effective stimulator of neurite outgrowth. These results show that (a) PACAP27 and PACAP38 stimulate cAMP accumulation and increase [Ca²⁺]_i through the type I PACAP receptors in N1E-115 cells, (b) ionomycin enhances cAMP accumulation by all three peptides, and (c) activation of protein kinase C has a dose-dependent stimulatory or inhibitory effect on the PACAP38- or PACAP27-stimulated cAMP accumulation.     

The putative signal peptide of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor is not required for receptor synthesis but promotes receptor expression

GLP-1R (glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor) mediates the ‘incretin effect’ and many other anti-diabetic actions of its cognate ligand, GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1). It belongs to the class B family of GPCRs (G protein-coupled receptors) and possesses an N-terminal putative SP (signal peptide). It has been reported that this sequence is required for the synthesis of GLP-1R and is cleaved after receptor synthesis. In the present study, we conducted an in-depth exploration towards the role of the putative SP in GLP-1R synthesis. A mutant GLP-1R without this sequence was expressed in HEK293 cells (human embryonic kidney 293 cells) and displayed normal functionality with respect to ligand binding and activation of adenylate cyclase. Thus the putative SP does not seem to be required for receptor synthesis. Immunoblotting analysis shows that the amount of GLP-1R synthesized in HEK293 cells is low when the putative SP is absent. This indicates that the role of the sequence is to promote the expression of GLP-1R. Furthermore, epitopes tagged at the N-terminal of GLP-1R are detectable by immunofluorescence and immunoblotting in our experiments. In conclusion, the present study points to different roles of SP in GLP-1R expression which broadens our understanding of the functionality of this putative SP of GLP-1R and possibly other Class B GPCRs.     

Investigation of bombesin peptide as a targeting ligand for the gastrin releasing peptide (GRP) receptor

Gastrin releasing peptide (GRP) receptor (GRPR), a bombesin family receptor, is overexpressed in many cancers including breast, prostate, pancreatic and lung. The targeting of therapeutics to GRPR can be achieved using the full-length (14 amino acid) GRP analogue Bombesin (BBN) or the truncated BBN(6–14) sequence, both of which bind GRPR with high affinity and specificity. In this study, we have investigated the level of GRPR expression in various cancerous (Caco-2, HeLa, LNCap, MDA-MB-231, and PC-3) and non-cancerous (WPMY-1) cell lines using a western blotting approach. Such information is currently lacking in the literature, and is therefore of importance for the in vitro assessment of GRPR targeted therapeutics. Of the cell lines assessed, the PC-3 (prostate cancer) and Caco-2 (colon cancer) cell lines demonstrated the highest and lowest levels of GRPR expression respectively. Using this information, we further investigated the cellular uptake of carboxyfluorescein-labelled BBN and BBN(6–14) peptides by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy using cell lines that express GRPR (Caco-2, HeLa, PC-3). The uptake of each of these peptides was similar, suggesting that the shorter BBN(6–14) peptide is sufficient for GRPR targeting. Further, the uptake of these peptides could be inhibited by competition with unlabelled BBN peptides, suggesting their cellular uptake is GRPR-mediated, while the level of BBN uptake (as measured by flow cytometry) was found to be directly proportional to the level of GRPR expression. Overall, the information obtained from these studies provides useful information for the in vitro assessment of GRPR targeted therapeutics.     

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) type 1 receptor (PAC1R) co-localizes with activity-dependent neuroprotective protein (ADNP) in the mouse brains

The crustacean hyperglycemic hormone is the most abundant neuropeptide present in the eyestalk of Crustacea and its main role is to control the glucose level in the hemolymph. Our study was aimed at assessing the importance of C-terminal amidation for its biological activity. Two recombinant peptides were produced, Asl-rcHH-Gly with a free carboxyl terminus and Asl-rcHH-amide with an amidated C-terminus. Homologous bioassays performed on the astacid crayfish Astacus leptodactylus showed that the amidated peptide had a stronger hyperglycemic effect compared to the non-amidated peptide. To assess the relevance of amidation also in other decapods and how much the differences in the cHH amino acid sequence can affect the functionality of the peptides, we carried out heterologous bioassays on the cambarid Procambarus clarkii and palaemonid Palaemon elegans. The Asl-rcHH-amide elicited a good response in P. clarkii and in P. elegans. The injection of Asl-rcHH-Gly evoked a weak response in both species. These results prove the importance of C-terminal amidation for the biological activity of cHH in crayfish as well as the role of the peptide primary sequence for the species-specificity hormone-receptor recognition.     

Deletion mutants of the B type natriuretic peptide receptor: cDNA expression and protein purification and characterization

The C type natriuretic peptide (CNP) is a peptide hormone stimulating vasorelaxation and inhibiting cell proliferation. CNP activates the type B natriuretic peptide receptor (NPR-B), known as the guanylate cyclase B membrane enzyme, which results in the cGMP release. To study functional properties of NPR-B, its gene fragments were expressed in methylotrophic yeastsPichia pastoris. Conditions were found providing for secretion of functionally active recombinant proteins NPR-Bs and NPR-Bl into the cultural medium in a yield of 25 mg/l culture. Their specific activity was 0.97 and 0.93 μmol cGMP min⁻¹ mg⁻¹ protein, respectively. It was shown that NPR-B belongs to the family of Ser/Thr protein kinases and can be autophosphorylated at the serine residues.     

Distribution of PACAP (pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide)-like and helospectin-like peptides in the teleost gut

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and helospectin are two vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)-related neuropeptides that have recently been demonstrated in the mammalian gut; the aim of this study was to reveal their occurrence and localisation in the gastrointestinal tract, swimbladder, urinary bladder and the vagal innervation of the gut of teleosts, using immunohistochemical methods on whole-mounts and sections of these tissues from the Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua and the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Both PACAP-like and helospectin-like peptides were present in the gut wall of the two species. Immunoreactive nerve fibres were found in all layers but were most frequent in the myenteric plexus and along the circular muscle fibres. Immunoreactivity was also demonstrated in nerves innervating the swimbladder wall, the urinary bladder and blood vessels to the gut. Immunoreactive nerve cell bodies were found in the myenteric plexus of the gut and in the muscularis mucosae of the swimbladder. In the vagus nerve, non-immunoreactive nerve cells were surrounded by PACAP-immunoreactive fibres. Double staining revealed the coexistence of PACAP-like and helospectin-like peptides with VIP in all visualized nerve fibres and in some endocrine cells. It is concluded that PACAP-like and helospectin-like peptides coexist with VIP in nerves innervating the gut of two teleost species. The distribution suggests that both PACAP and helospectin, like VIP, are involved in the control of gut motility and secretion.     

Characterization of a receptor for insect tachykinin-like peptide agonists by functional expression in a stable Drosophila Schneider 2 cell line

STKR is an insect G protein-coupled receptor, cloned from the stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans. It displays sequence similarity to vertebrate tachykinin [or neurokinin (NK)] receptors. Functional expression of the cloned STKR cDNA was obtained in cultured Drosophila melanogaster Schneider 2 (S2) cells. Insect tachykinin-like peptides or "insectatachykinins," such as Locusta tachykinin (Lom-TK) III, produced dose-dependent calcium responses in stably transfected S2-STKR cells. Vertebrate tachykinins (or neurokinins) did not evoke any effect at concentrations up to 10(-5) M, but an antagonist of mammalian neurokinin receptors, spantide II, inhibited the Lom-TK III-induced calcium response. Further analysis showed that the agonist-induced intracellular release of calcium ions was not affected by pretreatment of the cells with pertussis toxin. The calcium rise was blocked by the phospholipase C inhibitor U73122. In addition, Lom-TK III was shown to have a stimulatory effect on the accumulation of both inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and cyclic AMP. These are the same second messengers that are induced in mammalian neurokinin-dependent signaling processes.