THE OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF ACRASIEAE IN FORESTS OF SUBTROPICAL AND TROPICAL AMERICA

Forests of the subtropical and tropical regions of North America harbor cellular slime molds not found in the soils of temperate deciduous forests investigated previously. However, most species found in the temperate forest are common in the tropics. Although the diversity of forms is greater in the soils of tropical forests the numbers of Acrasieae per unit of soil are comparable. Characteristic of tropical and subtropical forest soils are Acrasieae bearing crampon bases, of which four new species of Dictyostelium are presently known. Also present, but less frequently isolated, are two other new species of the genus Dictyostelium and two still undescribed species of the Guttulinaceae. Occasional isolates of D. purpureum and D. discoideum were found that produce macrocysts, which seem, also, to be confined to tropical and subtropical areas. Macro-cysts were previously known only in D. mucoroides and D. minutum isolated from temperate forest soils. The occurrence and distribution of Acrasieae in warm temperate desert and mesquite-scrub, in subtropical hammock, and in tropical thorn, deciduous, seasonal evergreen, rain, and cloud forests were investigated. Acrasieae were well represented in all of these forests except desert. The number of species and the total populations were largest in seasonal evergreen forests. The composition of the cellular slime mold populations and the dominant species within these populations could be related to the soil environment as expressed by the dominant vegetation.     

A comparison of the responses of tropical and temperate flies (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) to cold and heat stress

Summary Two flesh fly species from the tropical lowlands (Peckia abnormis and Sarcodexia sternodontis) were more susceptible to both cold-shock and heatshock injury than temperate flies (Sarcophaga crassipalpis and S. bullata) and a fly from a tropical high altitude (Blaesoxipha plinthopyga). A brief (2-h) exposure to 0°C elicits a protective response against subsequent cold injury at–10°C in the temperate flies and in B. plinthopyga but no such response was found in the flies from the tropical lowlands. However, both tropical and temperate flies could be protected against heat injury (45°C) by first exposing them to a mild heat shock (2 h at 40°C). The supercooling point is not a good indicator of cold tolerance: supercooling points of pupae were similar in all species, ranging from–18.9 to–23.0°C, and no differences were found between the tropical and temperate species. Among the temperate species, glycerol, the major cryoprotectant, can be elevated by short-term exposure to 0°C, but glycerol could not be detected in the tropical flies. Low-temperature (0°C) exposure also increased hemolymph osmolality of the temperate species, but no such increase was observed in the tropical lowland species. Adaptations to temperature stress thus differ in tropical and temperate flesh flies: while flies from both geographic areas share a mechanism for rapidly increasing heat tolerance, only the temperate flies appear capable of responding rapidly to cold stress. The presence of a heat shock response in species that lack the ability to rapidly respond to cold stress indicates that the biochemical and physiological bases for these two responses are likely to differ.     

Host plant discrimination in tropical satyrine butterflies

Summary Inter and intraspecific host plant choice was examined for Mycalesis terminus and M. perseus, two tropical butterfly species of the subfamily Satyrinae. The two species preferred different suites of potential host plant species, but only M. perseus discriminated between different qualities of host. Differences in selectivity between these two species may be associated with the different lengths of time over which their larval resources may be expected to persist. The level of selectivity exhibited by these tropical species appears to be greater than their temperate counterparts. Potential factors controlling differences between oviposition strategies in temperate and tropical Satyrine butterflies and other groups are discussed.     

Molecular phylogenetic analyses reveal a close relationship between powdery mildew fungi on some tropical trees and Erysiphe alphitoides, an oak powdery mildew

To investigate the phylogenetic relationships among the powdery mildew fungi of some economically important tropical trees belonging to Oidium subgenus Pseudoidium, we conducted molecular phylogenetic analyses using 30 DNA sequences of the rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions and 26 sequences of the domains D1 and D2 of the 28S rDNA obtained from the powdery mildews on Hevea brasiliensis (para rubber tree), Anacardium occidentale (cashew), Bixa orellana, Citrus spp., Mangifera indica (mango), and Acacia spp. The results indicate that the powdery mildew fungi isolated from these tropical trees are closely related to one another. These powdery mildews are also closely related to E. alphitoides (including Erysiphe sp. on Quercus phillyraeoides). Because of the obligate biotrophic nature of the powdery mildew fungi, the relationship between powdery mildews and their host plants is conservative. However, the present study suggests that a particular powdery mildew species has expanded its host ranges on a wide range of the tropical trees. This article also suggests that a powdery mildew fungus distributed in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere expanded its host ranges onto tropical plants and may be a good example of how geographical and host range expansion has occurred in the Erysiphales.     

Tropical specialist vs. climate generalist: Diversification and demographic history of sister species of Carlia skinks from northwestern Australia

Species endemic to the tropical regions are expected to be vulnerable to future climate change due in part to their relatively narrow climatic niches. In addition, these species are more likely to have responded strongly to past climatic change, and this can be explored through phylogeographic analyses. To test the hypothesis that tropical specialists are more sensitive to climate change than climate generalists, we generated and analyse sequence data from mtDNA and ~2500 exons to compare scales of historical persistence and population fluctuation in two sister species of Australian rainbow skinks: the tropical specialist Carlia johnstonei and the climate generalist C. triacantha. We expect the tropical specialist species to have deeper and finer‐scale phylogeographic structure and stronger demographic fluctuations relative to the closely related climate generalist species, which should have had more stable populations through periods of harsh climate in the late Quaternary. Within C. johnstonei, we find that some populations from the northern Kimberley islands are highly divergent from mainland populations. In C. triacantha, one major clade occurs across the deserts and into the mesic Top End, and another occurs primarily in the Kimberley with scattered records eastwards. Where their ranges overlap in the Kimberley, both mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA suggest stronger phylogeographic structure and range expansion within the tropical specialist, whereas the climate generalist has minimal structuring and no evidence of recent past range expansion. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that tropical specialists are more sensitive to past climatic change.     

Systematic variation in the logarithmic ranges in abundance of freshwater phytoplankton populations

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ADAPTATIONS TO TEMPERATE CLIMATES AND EVOLUTION OF OVERWINTERING STRATEGIES IN THE DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER SPECIES GROUP

The Drosophila melanogaster species group is considered to have originated in the tropics and only recently invaded temperate habitats. The temperate species of this group that were studied here may be subdivided into the warm-temperate species (D. lutescens and D. rufa) and the cool-temperate species (species of the auraria complex). The warm-temperate species were more cold-hardy than were their tropical relatives (D. takahashii or D. melanogaster) at the larval and imaginal stages, and the cool-temperate species were more cold-hardy than the warm-temperate species, although only at the imaginal stage. However, these species showed little or no intraspecific variation in cold-hardiness, in spite of great variation in winter temperature within the species' ranges. It is assumed that cold-hardiness is one of the main factors restricting their distributions at high latitudes and that it is the key for evolution of the warm- and cool-temperate species from their subtropical or warm-temperate ancestors. Both warm- and cool-temperate species had photoperiodically controlled reproductive diapause. In the cool-temperate species, the development of cold-hardiness was affected by diapause, but diapause had little or no effect on cold-hardiness in the warm-temperate species. Critical daylengths and the diapause rates varied from species to species according to variation in their overwintering plans and also varied geographically in consequence of their adaptation to local climates. Species showed different responses to temperature in preimaginal and ovarian development. These differences are considered to reflect adaptation to different environmental temperatures.     

Do invasive freshwater fish species grow better when they are invasive?

A frequent assumption in invasion ecology is that invasive species have enhanced growth rates in their invasive ranges. However, invasions frequently occur in sub‐tropical and tropical environments where growth could be higher simply due to climatic conditions rather than novel habitat. In this study, a meta‐analysis of growth rates (length‐at‐age data) was completed for six invasive freshwater fish species: common carp Cyprinus carpio, largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides, brown trout Salmo trutta, brown bullhead Ictalurus nebulosus, flathead catfish Pylodictis olivaris and northern snakehead Channa argus. Significant effects of climate on growth were observed for all species except common carp, and following normalization of growth for climate effects, a range of growth responses between native and invasive populations were revealed. Two species (brown trout, flathead catfish) showed significantly increased growth rates in invasive compared to native ranges, but two species (common carp, largemouth bass) showed significantly faster growth in native ranges, and two other species (northern snakehead, brown bullhead) showed no difference in growth rates. No species showed both significantly enhanced growth rates and initial sizes in invasive compared to native ranges. Using the comparative method, countergradient growth variations were apparent for all species within their native ranges and for all but one species in invasive ranges. Invasive populations of freshwater fish do not always grow faster when invasive and future studies need to consider growth covariates (e.g. climate and countergradient growth) prior to comparing life‐history differences between invasive and native populations.     

Tail length variation inMacaca fascicularis andM. mulatta

Based on collectors' measurements of 1,040 specimens, variation of relative tail length [RTL = (tail length/head and body length) × 100] has been studied inMacaca fascicularis andM. mulatta, two closely related species that replace one another in tropical Asia and subtropical Asia, respectively. RTL usually is greater than 90 inM. fascicularis and usually is less than 60 inM. mulatta; intermediate values occur in only 3.5% of specimens studied. Within each species, RTL is approximately equal in females and males. From infancy to adulthood, RTL tends to decline in both species. InM. fascicularis, RTL generally decreases with increasing latitude; inM. mulatta, RTL is approximately constant latitudinally. Where the geographic ranges of these two species meet at ca. 15°N in the Indochinese Peninsula, a few specimens have been collected in which RTL and dorsal pelage color are intermediate between those inM. fascicularis andM. mulatta. The observed pattern of variation suggests that the ranges ofM. fascicularis andM. mulatta formerly were separated by a zoogeographic barrier — perhaps during a Pleistocene glacial interval. After disappearance of the postulated barrier, the ranges of these two species apparently became contiguous and limited hybridization has occurred.     

The early evolution of the mega‐diverse genus Begonia (Begoniaceae) inferred from organelle DNA phylogenies

Begonia L. is one of the largest flowering plant genera, a ubiquitous component of many tropical forests and an economically important ornamental plant. In the present study, we address the early evolution of Begonia by generating molecular phylogenies from approximately 7000 bases of chloroplast DNA and approximately 6000 bases of mitochondrial DNA for each of 30 exemplar Begonia species. Broadscale biogeographic patterns found in the phylogenies, together with previously estimated divergence dates, indicated that extant Begonia lineages first diversified in Africa and then subsequently in America and Asia. The phylogenies also revealed that the closest African relatives of the American and Asian Begonia are seasonally‐adapted species. Moderate to strong incongruence between the phylogenies suggested that they differ genealogically. These differences could have been the result of either interspecific hybridization and/or incomplete lineage sorting. The results obtained in the present study provide a much needed genus‐wide framework for future evolutionary studies of this exceptionally diverse tropical genus. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 101 , 243–250.     

Altitudinal distribution of tropical planktonic Cladocera

The altitudinal distributions of planktonic Cladocera in Africa in three latitudinal bands: 0–10 °, 10–20 ° and 28–31 ° are described. Some species have altitudinal ranges of 2000 m within a latitudinal band of 10 °. It is possible to distinguish tropical species which do not extend up to high altitudes, particularly at higher latitudes. At the lowest latitudes, some species are found only at high altitudes, but occur at progressively lower altitudes with increasing latitude: Daphnia pulex and D. obtusa are good examples. A study in South America, with a smaller database, gives similar results.     

Phytogeography, range size and richness of Australian endemic Sauropus (Euphorbiaceae)

Aim To investigate the distribution of Australian species of Sauropus. The information obtained is used to (1) identify areas of highest richness and centres of endemism, (2) investigate latitudinal gradients of richness and range size, (3) determine the types of rarity shown, and (4) provide hypotheses on historical biogeography of the genus within Australia. Location Australia. Methods Specimens from 17 herbaria and field searches were examined and label and field information collated on distribution, habit and habitat. Distribution information was used to map all species within 784 grid cells of 1° × 1° and within the 97 Australian ‘ecological regions’. Morphometric cluster analysis of species was conducted using Kulczynski association and flexible UPGMA on 23 character states. Simple regression was used to correlate species richness, density and range size to changes in latitude. CLIMEX is used to match the climate of the region of highest richness in Australia with other areas of the world. Results Species richness was highest within the tropical north of Australia, and most species were associated with tropical savanna woodlands. Two areas were identified as centres of endemism and these corresponded closely to areas of high species richness. Four morphological groups were identified. One species (Sauropus trachyspermus) was found to be widespread, however all other species had small geographical ranges. Species richness and range size were significantly correlated with changes in latitude. Ten species were found to be of the rarest type, warranting conservation initiatives. Main conclusions Two regions of high richness and endemism of Sauropus occur, Thailand and Australia. Within Australia, the Kakadu‐Alligator River and the Cairns‐Townsville areas were identified as centres of endemism and high species richness for Sauropus. Australian Sauropus in general occur in similar communities and climates as other members of the genus elsewhere. Ten of the 27 species of Australian endemic Sauropus are extremely rare and warrant conservation initiatives. Correlations of latitude to species richness are potentially due to Sauropus radiating from the climatically stable top end of Australia. Increasing range size in more southern latitudes may also be due to stability of climates in the top end or because there is more available land area at these latitudes. Sauropus micranthus, the only non‐endemic species, is probably a more recent invader from the Tertiary period when tropical rain forests where more extensive and congruent with those of New Guinea.     

Local and geographical distributions for a tropical tree genus,Scaphium (Sterculiaceae) in the Far East

Tropical rain forests have an amazingly large number of closely related, sympatric species. How the sympatric species coexist is central to understanding the maintenance of high biodiversity in tropical rain forests. We compared local and geographical distributions among trees in Scaphium (Sterculiaceae), a tropical canopy tree genus. Scaphium is endemic to the Far Eastern tropics and comprises six species. Scaphium scaphigerum is distributed in drier regions than the other species' geographical distribution ranges. Scaphium longiflorum is distributed swamp forests, whereas the others were distributed in lowland and hill tropical rain forests on undulating land. Scaphium borneense, S. longipetiolatum, and S. macropodum co-occurred in a 52-ha plot in Lambir, Sarawak and clearly showed an allopathic pattern of distribution related to elevation in it. In the plot, the elevational difference was correlated with soil variation. Consequently, the difference in edaphic condition promoted the habitat segregation of the species. Thus these five Scaphium species have divergent habitats at various spatial scales and coexist because they reduce direct competition by habitat niche differentiation. Although the non-equilibrium hypothesis for the coexistence of Scaphium species cannot be rejected categorically due to the lack of enough information about S. linearicarpum, the equilibrium force may play the predominant role which permits their coexistence.     

Findings of the Tropical Group Testate Amoebae (Protozoa: Testacea) at the Far East (Sikhote Alin Reserve)

Testate amoebae species Hoogenraadia humicola, Planhoogenraadia media, and Distomatopyxis couillardiof the Gondwana–tropical and tropical groups have been found for the first time in the territory of Russia. Brown and dark-colored soil of oak forest in Primorskii Krai (Sikhote Alin Reserve, northeast part of the East Asian Holarctic) are the northernmost range of these tropical species. The morphometric data are presented, and the specific composition of the communities and geographical distribution of the tropical group species are discussed. A new species, Planhoogenraadia dauricaBobrov, has been described.     

The biogeographical distribution of microfungi associated with three palm species from tropical and temperate habitats

The microfungi of three palm species were investigated in their natural habitats and in habitats where the palms were cultivated outside their natural ranges. The palms that were selected differed in their habitats and ecology. Archontophoenix alexandrae is endemic to tropical rainforests in Australia, Cocos nucifera is pan‐tropical and Trachycarpus fortunei occurs in warm‐temperate China. Different assemblages of fungi were found in association with palms in temperate regions as compared to those in tropical regions. These differences were more related to climatic influences than to the hosts sampled, as few fungi were host‐species specific. The status of the hosts at the site, i.e. indigenous or introduced, and the degree of disturbance of the habitats within which the palms grew were also influential. When sampled in its natural habitat, Archontophoenix alexandrae had a distinct palmicolous mycota typical of other palms in tropical rainforests. Outside of the palm’s natural habitat, a widely different mycota were recorded that comprised tropical species of a more plurivorous nature. A similar plurivorous assemblage characterized the fungi associated with Cocos nucifera, probably due to the palm’s long history of cultivation. Similarly, plurivorous, but temperate or widespread fungi were associated with Trachycarpus fortunei, both within and outside of its natural habitat. This palm is also highly cultivated. A reduction in palm fungi associated with palms in disturbed habitats has implications for conservation of these fungi. However, it is acknowledged that the data for fungal diversity and distribution is incomplete and fragmentary.     

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY OF CORALLINA AND HALIPTILON (CORALLINACEAE,RHODOPHYTA): SURFACE FEATURES AND THEIR TAXONOMIC IMPLICATIONS1

Scanning electron microscopy of intergenicula in members of the subfamily Corallinoideae reveals two distinctive surface morphologies: a Corallina-type (C-type) with round to irregular cell outlines and round trichocyte bases, and a Jania-type (J-type) with elongate, polygonal cell outlines and elongate trichocyte bases with excentric pores. The surface results from the calcified lateral walls of the epithallial cells projecting up from around collapsed protoplasts. Since J-type surfaces and trichocytes only occur in unequivocal members of the tribe Janieae—especially the genera Jania and Haliptilon, the presence of J-type surfaces in questionable members of Corallina reveals that they in fact belong to Haliptilon. Thus the two surface types clarify previously difficult taxonomic distinctions between Haliptilon and Corallina and allow identification to genus from purely vegetative material. Seventeen new combinations in Haliptilon are proposed. These results have considerable biogeographic implications with tropical species found to belong to Haliptilon, and Corallina sensu stricto being recognized primarily as a temperate and cold water genus.     

RAPD and microsatellite transferability studies in selected species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Prosopis</Emphasis> (section Algarobia) with emphasis on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Prosopis juliflora</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">P. pallida</Emphasis>

The genus Prosopis (Leguminosae, Mimosoideae), comprises 44 species widely distributed in arid and semi-arid zones. Prosopis pallida (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Kunth and P. juliflora (Sw.) DC. are the two species that are truly tropical apart from P. africana, which is native to tropical Africa (Pasiecznik et al. 2004), and they have been introduced widely beyond their native ranges. However, taxonomic confusion within the genus has hampered exploitation and better management of the species. The present study focusses primarily on evaluating the genetic relationship between Prosopis species from the section Algarobia, containing most species of economic importance, though P. tamarugo from section Strombocarpa is also included for comparison. In total, 12 Prosopis species and a putative P. pallida × P. chilensis hybrid were assessed for their genetic relationships based on RAPD markers and microsatellite transferability. The results show that P. pallida and P. juliflora are not closely related despite some morphological similarity. Evidence also agrees with previous studies which suggest that the grouping of series in section Algarobia is artificial.     

Analysis of vertebral counts of the tropical anguillids, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anguilla megastoma,A. obscura</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">A. reinhardtii</Emphasis>, in the western South Pacific in relation to their possible population structure and phylogeny

The population structures of three tropical eel species, Anguilla megastoma, A. obscura, and A. reinhardtii, collected from several localities of each species range in the western South Pacific Ocean were evaluated using statistical analyses of total number of vertebrae (TV) data, which also included previously published data. There was a significant difference in TV values between Samoa and French Polynesia specimens of A. megastoma, while no significant difference was observed in TV data of A. obscura, despite the two species having similar overlapping species distribution ranges. There also was no significant difference found in the TV data of A. reinhardtii. These results suggest that A. megastoma may be separated into eastern and western populations in the western South Pacific, but there was no statistical evidence using the TV data that A. obscura and A. reinhardtii have population structure in the western South Pacific. These possible types of population structures are discussed in relation to the phylogeography and life histories of other tropical anguillid eels.     

Diversity in symbiotic specificity of cowpea rhizobia indigenous to Zimbabwean soils

Tropical cowpea rhizobia are often presumed to be generally promiscuous but poor N fixers. This study was conducted to evaluate symbiotic interactions of 59 indigenous rhizobia isolates (49 of them from cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)), with up to 13 other (mostly tropical) legume species. Host ranges averaged 2.4 and 2.3 legume species each for fast- and slow-growing isolates respectively compared to 4.3 for slow-growing reference cowpea strains. An average of 22% and 19% of fast- and slow-growing cowpea isolates respectively were effective on each of 12 legume species tested. We conclude that the indigenous cowpea rhizobia studied have relatively narrow host ranges. The ready nodulation of different legumes in tropical soils appears due to the diversity of indigenous symbiotic genotypes, each consisting of subgroups compatible with a limited number of legume species.