Comparison of methods to evaluate the potential of fungal growth on decay of spruce wood after short-time treatment

Several analytical methods were compared to evaluate characteristic wood decaying fungi for their potential to depolymerise lignin on spruce wood particles. Wood samples were treated with the white rot fungi Phlebia brevispora, Ceriporiopsis subvermispora, Merulius tremellosus, Pycnoporus sanguineus, Trametes pubescens and with the brown rot fungus Gloeophyllum trabeum. The UV absorbancies of crude ethanol extracts, total extractives content from sequential extraction, ligninolytic enzyme activities, lignin solubilisation and decrease of lignin content were compared. It was shown, that, in early decay stages, UV absorbancies of crude ethanol extracts and total extractives content correlate well with lignin degradation, increase of acid soluble lignin and increased production of ligninolytic enzymes (total peroxidase). Lignin content was determined using FT-NIR spectroscopy as well as by wet-chemical analysis, indicating a very good correlation between the two methods. According to the different analytical methods, the tested fungi can be classified into three categories based on their characteristic behaviour: brown rot, “slow” and “fast” white rot.     

Late Neolithic agriculture in eastern Austria: archaeobotanical results from sites of the Baden and Jevišovice cultures (3600–2800 b.c.)

The article presents archaeobotanical results from six late Neolithic excavation sites in eastern Austria. Two of the sites belong to the Jevišovice culture (3200–2800 cal b.c.), the remaining four to the Baden culture (3600–2900 cal b.c.). Results show that farmers around 3000 cal b.c. were relying on the use of Triticum monococcum and Hordeum vulgare as principal cereals, with Triticum dicoccum and Panicum miliaceum as additional crops. Common millet was found in quantity at one of the Jevišovice sites and shows the remarkably early westward spread of this species. Single records of Triticum spelta are discussed in the light of the recently proposed ideas about an independent central European origin of spelt. Another record concerns the “new-type” glume wheat, providing further evidence for the once widespread occurrence of this cultivar. Triticum aestivum (hexaploid naked wheat) and Setaria italica (foxtail millet) were found as rare admixtures at the Jevišovice settlements. Pulses were represented by Pisum sativum and Lens culinaris, oil plants by Papaver somniferum and Linum usitatissimum. One of the Jevišovice sites offered a good opportunity for a study of the undisturbed spatial distribution of charred plant remains within a burnt house. Among wild plants, the occurrence of Stipa sp., Teucrium chamaedrys, Asperula cynanchica and Plantago media point to the presence of dry steppe grassland in the vicinity of the settlements, which was probably used for grazing. Woodland plants were mainly represented by fruit-bearing plants growing in clearings and forest edges, reflecting both the deliberate collection of wild fruits and the growing human impact on the vegetation.     

Diet-switching by gypsy moth: effects of diet nitrogen history vs. switching on growth, consumption, and food utilization

Gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar (L.) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)) larvae were reared from hatch on 1.25% N or 3.5% N artificial diet (previous diet) and switched reciprocally to the other diet (current diet) after molting into the second, third, fourth, or fifth instar. The nitrogen concentration of food consumed during previous instars had a strong residual effect on the growth rate in subsequent instars when a diet switch was made during instars two through four, but did not affect growth rate of fifth-instar larvae despite effects on food consumption and utilization. In early instars, larvae reared on 1.25% N artificial diet and then switched to 3.75% N diet had lower mass-adjusted growth rates than larvae continuously reared on 3.75% N diet. Conversely, larvae reared on 3.75% N diet and switched to 1.25% N had higher mass-adjusted growth rates than larvae reared continuously on 1.25% N diet. Relative to larvae previously reared on 1.25% N diet, fifth-instar male larvae previously reared on 3.75% N diet had slightly lower consumption rates, higher net growth efficiency (ECD), and higher gross growth efficiency (ECI). Larvae previously reared on 3.75% N diet tended to have lower food assimilation efficiency (AD) and lower nitrogen assimilation efficiency (AD(N)). Although both previous and current diet nitrogen concentration strongly affected larval growth and food utilization, the interaction term between these was not significant for any response variables except ECD and ECI. Because the interaction term reflects the effect of switching per se, the results indicate that there was a metabolic cost associated with switching, but no inherent net cost or benefit of diet-switching to growth.     

Plant remains from a Bell Beaker site in Switzerland, and the beginnings of Triticum spelta (spelt) cultivation in Europe

Little is known of the archaeobotany of the Bell Beaker period. The village of Cortaillod/Sur les Rochettes-est in Switzerland is one of the first settlements of this date discovered so far; and one of the few sites where systematic archaeobotanical research could be undertaken. The 114 features, mainly postholes, produced 5080 charred plant macrofossils. The composition of the cereal spectrum was dominated by hulled wheats and notably by Triticum spelta (spelt). Other important components were Triticum dicoccum (emmer) and T. monococcum (einkorn), and probably also Hordeum (barley). The abundance of spelt represents a fundamental change compared with the plant finds from earlier sites of the region. The origin of this cereal species is discussed in the light of recent results of cytogenetic and molecular research.     

Drought as an Inciting Mortality Factor in Scots Pine Stands of the Valais, Switzerland

During the 20th century, high mortality rates of Scots pine (Pinus silvestris L.) have been observed over large areas in the Rhône valley (Valais, Switzerland) and in other dry valleys of the European Alps. In this study, we evaluated drought as a possible inciting factor of Scots pine decline in the Valais. Averaged tree-ring widths, standardized tree-ring series, and estimated annual mortality risks were related to a drought index. Correlations between drought indices and standardized tree-ring series from 11 sites showed a moderate association. Several drought years and drought periods could be detected since 1864 that coincided with decreased growth. Although single, extreme drought years had generally a short-term, reversible effect on tree growth, multi-year drought initiated prolonged growth decreases that increased a tree’s long-term risk of death. Tree death occurred generally several years or even decades after the drought. In conclusion, drought has a limiting effect on tree growth and acts as a bottleneck event in triggering Scots pine decline in the Valais.     

Termination of the facultative diapause in the codling moth, Laspeyresia pomonella (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae)

The abiotic factors regulating the termination of the facultative diapause of the mature larva of the codling moth, Laspeyresia pomonella (L.), are described. The termination of diapause under long-day conditions (LD) is influenced by: (i) the rearing temperature of the larvae during prediapause development, (ii) the duration of the preincubation period, i.e. the time for which the diapausing larvae remain under prediapause rearing conditions, (iii) the reactivating incubation, i.e. the period for which the larvae are chilled, and (iv) the complementary incubation (LD and, except in one experiment, 26°), i.e. the period after the chilling needed for the pupation of the insects. The complementary incubation is distinctly shorter if the prediapause development of the larvae takes place at rearing temperatures below 26°, i.e. 21° or 19°. The latter conditions led to 100% pupae and pupation could be accelerated by prolonging the preincubation period. In larvae reared at 26°, the prolongation of the preincubation period raised the rate of pupation to a maximum of only 56% and also caused higher mortality. On the other hand, diapause was terminated under short-day conditions if the temperature was raised to 26° after a rearing temperature of 19° and a preincubation period of 90 days.

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Beendigung der fakultativen diapause des apfelwicklers, Laspeyresia Pomonella (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae)

Zusammenfassung Es wurde untersucht, welche abiotischen Faktoren die Beendigung der fakultativen Diapause ausgewachsener Apfelwicklerlarven (Laspeyresia pomonella) steuern. Die Beendigung der Diapause unter Langtagbedingungen (LT) wird beeinflusst durch: 1. die Zuchttemperatur der Larven während der Prädiapauseentwicklung; 2. die Dauer der Präinkubation, d.h. die Zeit, während der diapausierende Larven unter Prädiapause-Zuchtbedingungen bleiben; 3. die Reaktivierungs-inkubation, d.h. eine Periode von 70 d, während der die Larven auf 4° gekühlt werden und 4. die Komplementärinkubation (LT und, ausser in einem Experiment, 26°), d.h. die nach der Kühlung bzw. dem Wechsel in der Photoperiode benötigte Zeitdauer bis zur Verpuppung. Die Komplementärinkubation ist deutlich kürzer, wenn die Prädiapauseentwicklung der Larven bei Temperaturen unter 26° stattfindet. Bei 19° verpuppten sich 100% der Larven, wobei der Zeitpunkt der Verpuppung durch die Verlängerung der Präinkubationszeit beschleunigt wurde. Bei Larven, die bei 26° gezüchtet wurden, erreichte die Verpuppungsrate lediglich 56% bei einer relativ langen Präinkubationsdauer, wobei deren Verlängerung auch die Larvenmortalität erhöhte. Nach einer Zuchttemperatur von 19° und einer Präinkubationsdauer von 90 Tagen konnte die Diapause unter Kurztagbedingungen beendet werden, wenn die Temperatur auf 26° erhöht wurde.

     

Parasites of the flounder Platichthys flesus (L.) from the German Bight, North Sea, and their potential use in ecosystem monitoring

As part of integrated biological-effect monitoring, the parasite fauna of the flounder Platichthys flesus (L.) was investigated at five locations in the German Bight, with a view to using parasite species as bio-indicators. Over a period of 6 years, parasites from 30 different taxa were identified, but only 7 taxa of the parasite community occurred regularly at all locations and in sufficient abundance that they could be considered as potential indicator species. These species were the ciliophoran Trichodina spp., the copepods Acanthochondria cornuta, Lepeophtheirus pectoralis and Lernaeocera branchialis, the helminths Zoogonoides viviparus and Cucullanus heterochrous and metacercaria of an unidentified digenean species. Infection characteristics of these parasites are presented, with a comparison of the results from individual sampling periods and those of the long-term data set. Natural influences on the infection levels, such as temporal variations, habitat conditions and host-related factors, were evaluated. All of these parasite species showed significant differences in their infection levels between the Elbe estuary, as the most polluted site, and the less polluted coastal and marine locations: Helgoland, Outer Eider estuary and Spiekeroog, especially in the long-term data set. Gradual differences between the Elbe, the Outer Eider and Helgoland, which were not detected in individual sampling periods, also became evident in the pooled-data set. These were found in the prevalence of Trichodina spp., A. cornuta, Z. viviparus and C. heterochrous. Although salinity is considered as the most important natural factor, influencing the distribution pattern of the majority of the potential indicator species, infection levels of most of these species differed between locations with similar salinity conditions. Infection levels corresponded to a contamination gradient (Elbe > Inner Eider, Outer Eider > Helgoland) established across the locations. Seasonal variation in the infection parameters affected the spatial distribution of the copepod species Lepeophtheirus pectoralis and Lernaeocera branchialis. Annual variations are considered to occur in the range of natural variability, so no trend of increasing or decreasing infection levels of the parasites was found during the course of the study. This study underlined the idea that an analysis of fish-parasite fauna is very useful in ecosystem monitoring. Communicated by H. von Westerhagen, A. Diamant     

The archaeobotanical record of Staphylea pinnata L. from the 3rd/4th century A.D. in northern Poland

Artefacts made of Staphylea pinnata seeds have been found in a grave dated to the late Roman period discovered in Pruszcz Gdaski (northern Poland). This record is discussed against the background of the present-day distribution range of this species and its Holocene fossil localities. The role of man in the extension of the primary area of occurrence of the species has been emphasised.     

Plant regeneration from protoplasts of indica rice: genotypic differences in culture response

Summary Fourteen varieties of indica rice (Oryza saliva L.) were examined for their capacity for plant regeneration from protoplasts using the nurse culture methods developed for japonica rice. Calli induced from germinating seeds were grouped into two types: type I, white and compact; type II, yellow and friable. In four varieties producing type II callus, colony formation (2%–4.5%) and plant regeneration (2%–35%) were observed. The inability to develop suspension cultures was a major obstacle in regenerating plants from protoplasts of the remaining rice varieties studied.     

Pollen-derived history of timber exploitation from the Roman period onwards in the Romanche valley, central French Alps

The history of forestry in the Romanche river valley, south-east of Grenoble, France, is reconstructed for the past ca. 3000 years on the basis of detailed pollen analysis and AMS¹⁴C dating. Three deforestation phases are recorded during the last two millennia, each phase showing different features and also contrasting woodland succession in the post-clearance period. The first major deforestation is recorded at the Roman time whenAbies alba (fir) was selectively exploited, presumably for use by peoples living downstream of the site. Apart from the deforestation, there appears to have been little human activity in the vicinity of the site at this time. After the clearance fir gradually, and more or less fully, recovered. The second deforestation phase occurred in ca. the 5^th and 6^th century A.D. when there is also substantial evidence for local farming. At this time, both fir and beech (Fagus sylvatica) were non-selectively exploited and probably used locally. Beach subsequently recovers but there is no further regeneration of fir. The third deforestation phase in ca. the 12^th century A.D. is similar to the preceding phase but this time beech does not recover. With the decline in human activity, secondary forest that included spruce (Picea) and pine (Pinus), developed. Forest dynamics were controlled by local human activity and also the economic relationships between the local area and the wider region and especially the region downstream from the site.     

The significance ofSaccocoma-calciturbidites for the analysis of the Polish epicontinental late Jurassic Basin: An example from the Southern Cracow-Wielun Upland (Poland)

Summary In the top section of the Upper Jurassic profile in the S part of the Cracow-Wielun upland there occur deposits with numerous fragments of the plantonic crinoidsSaccocoma. Sedimentary structures indicate that these deposits are calciturbidites with domination of the redeposited pelagic material. TheSaccocoma-calciturbidites rest on the slope beds of Oxfordian cyanobacterial-sponge carbonate buildups formed in the Polish epicontinental basin, bordering the Tethys ocean in the north. The occurrence of the planktonicSaccocoma seems to be connected with a short deepening the S part of the Polish epicontinental basin in the Late Jurassic. This deepening caused the change within biocoenoses thriving in carbonate buildups and was mainly expressed in reducingTubiphytes. ‘Tubiphytes-reefs’, representing the last stage in the development of the carbonate buildups in the S part of the Cracow-Wielun upland, marked the most shallow sedimentation environment. With deepending of the basin,Tubiphytes and other benthonic forms disappeared, and, simultaneously, the dominant fauna became planktonic. The abundance of planktonic crinoidsSaccocoma (=Lombardia), as well as the presence of planktonic foraminifers, nannoplankton cf.Schizosphaerella, coccoliths and radiolarians indicates a pelagic, open-sea depositional environment. TheSaccocoma-dominated sediments, which had been primarily deposited from a suspension on a sea floor with a distinct relief, became subsequently transported by turbidity currents. A limited extent and thickness of theSaccocoma-calciturbidites was caused by a relatively small amount of the primary material which could be transferred by the turbidity currents because the period of pelagic sedimentation was short. TheSaccocoma-calciturbidites indicate a distinct shift in conditions of sedimentation resulting from over-regional changes and, despite the lack of index fossils, seem to represent a local lithostratigraphic horizon. These sediments probably mark a sedimentation event which caused a minor levelling of the sea floor relief. Then, after a sedimentation break, wide-spread destruction of the tops of carbonate buildups and formation of debris flows in the shallowing Late Jurassic sea took place. TheSaccocoma-calciturbidites in the S part of the Cracow-Wielun upland can be found near edges of horsts. This suggests that the foundations of these horsts are probably of sedimentary origin, dating back at least to the Late Jurassic. TheSaccocoma-calciturbidites in the S part of the Polish epicontinental basin seem to result from local, synsedimentary tectonic movements, which probably reflect over-regional events on the one hand, and oscillations of the sea level-on the other.     

Hints of economic change during the late Roman Empire period in central Italy: a study of charred plant remains from “La Fontanaccia”, near Rome

The archaeobotanical study of the charred macro-remains recovered from the burnt settlement of La Fontanaccia, Allumiere, 50 km northwest of Rome, a small hut from the time of the end of the late Roman Empire, provided results on the use of food of its inhabitants, their living conditions, and the natural environment. The fire which destroyed the small settlement was archaeologically dated to the middle of the 5th century a.d., few years before the end of the Roman Empire. This was a period in which the state structure, undermined by the barbarian invasions which provoked famine and destruction, was in deep economic and political crisis, and the population in Rome and in the countryside lived in precarious conditions. No archaeo-botanical data have been available until now for this period in the region of Rome. The presence of grass peas, acorns, two-rowed barley caryopses, and small horse bean seeds demonstrate the general state of regression in the late Roman Empire, when misery and famine were widespread. The finds of charcoal from chestnut, deciduous oak, maple and elm suggest the presence of thermophilous deciduous woods and environmental conditions similar to today’s. It deserves mention that this is the first site in which macro-remains (charcoal) of Castanea have been found in central Italy.     

The role of GA,IAA and BAP in the regulation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">in vitro</Emphasis> shoot growth and microtuberization in potato

The effect of auxin, GA and BAP on potato shoot growth and tuberization was investigated under in vitro condition. The shoot length of potato explants increased with the increasing of concentrations (0.5 – 10 mg dm⁻³) of IAA treatment especially with the addition of GA₃ (0.5 mg dm⁻³), but was inhibited by BAP (5 mg dm⁻³). The root number and root fresh weight of potato explants increased with the increasing of IAA levels either in the presence of GA₃ (treatment IAA+GA) or not (IAA alone). However, no root was observed in the treatment IAA+BAP, instead there were brown swollen calli formed around the basal cut surface of the explants. The addition of GA₃ remarkably increased the fresh weight and diameter of calli. Microtubers were formed in the treatments of IAA+BAP and IAA + GA + BAP but not observed in the treatments of IAA alone or IAA + GA. IAA of higher concentrations (2.5 – 10 mg dm⁻³) was helpful to form sessile tubers. With the increasing of IAA levels, the fresh weight and diameter of microtubers increased progressively. At 10 mg/L IAA, the fresh weight and diameter of microtubers in the treatment of IAA + GA + BAP were 409.6 % and 184.4 % of that in the treatment of IAA + BAP respectively, indicating the interaction effect of GA and IAA in potato microtuberization.     

Temporal distribution of perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) in a lake-reservoir (Moselle,France): analysis of catches with vertical gill nets

Four fishing periods within a yearly cycle between 1990 and 1991 were carried out in the lake-reservoir of Mirgenbach, lake of the nuclear power station in Cattenom (Moselle, France). The catches of perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) were analyzed.In all, about 630 perch were caught in 8 sampling stations. The analysis of seasonal catches of this carnivorous fish was made according to size and mesh; a simple correspondence factor analysis enabled us to establish that this species lived in different areas depending on the season.     

Assessing the potential for unintended effects in genetically modified potatoes perturbed in metabolic and developmental processes. Targeted analysis of key nutrients and anti-nutrients

Targeted compositional analysis was carried out on transgenic potato tubers of either cultivar (cv.) Record or cv. Desirée to assess the potential for unintended effects caused by the genetic modification process. The range of transgenic lines analysed included those modified in primary carbohydrate metabolism, polyamine biosynthesis and glycoprotein processing. Controls included wildtype tubers, tubers produced from plants regenerated through tissue culture (including a callus phase) and tubers derived from transformation with the ‘empty vector’ i.e. no specific target gene included (with the exception of the kanamycin resistance gene as a selectable marker). Metabolite analysis included soluble carbohydrates, glycoalkaloids, vitamin C, total nitrogen and fatty acids. Trypsin inhibitor activity was also assayed. These cover the major compounds recommended by the OECD in their Consensus Document on Compositional Considerations for New Varieties of Potatoes: Key Food and Feed Nutrients, Anti-Nutrients and Toxicants (2002). Data was statistically analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) for individual compounds and, where applicable, principal component analysis (PCA). In general, targeted compositional analysis revealed no consistent differences between GM lines and respective controls. No construct specifically induced unintended effects. Statistically significant differences between wildtype controls and specific GM lines did occur but appeared to be random and not associated with any specific construct. Indeed such significant differences were also found between wildtypes and both tissue culture derived tubers and tubers derived from transformation with the empty vector. This raises the possibility that somaclonal variation (known to occur significantly in potato, depending on genotype) may be responsible for an unknown proportion of any differences observed between specific GM lines and the wildtype. The most obvious differences seen in GC-MS profiles were between the two potato varieties used in the study.     

Characterization of an oviposition stimulant from the surface of sweet potato Ipomoea batatas storage roots for the sweet potato weevil, Cylas formicarius elegantulus

An improved laboratory bioassay was used to characterize an oviposition stimulant from the surface of sweet potato Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. storage roots for the sweetpotato weevil, Cylas formicarius elegantulus (Summers). Filter paper discs impregnated with a methylene chloride surface extract of sweet potato storage roots induced significantly (p<0.05) higher oviposition on root cores than those treated with solvent only. Significantly higher oviposition was also observed in the nonpolar fractions, especially one that contains a tentatively identified triterpenoid present in susceptible cultivars.

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Caractérisation d'une substance extraite de la surface des racines tubéreuses d'Ipomoea batatas induisant la ponte de Cylas formicarius elegantulus

Résumé La caractérisation des substances extraites de la surface des racines tubéreuses d'I. batatas Lam et stimulant la ponte de C. formicarious elegantulus Summers, a été effectuée à partir d'une technique améliorée. Différents substrats ont été essayés: extraits au chlorure de méthylène ou péridermes intacts de cultivars résistants ou sensibles, racines tubéreuses après élimination du périderme, morceaux de Solanum tuberosum ou de papier filtre présentés au milieu de plaques à 24 plots pour culture de tissus. Le meilleur substrat s'est révélé être de petits disques de papier filtre (diamètre 0,4 cm), fixés au milieu d'un morceau de racine avec encore un peu de périderme sur lequel le coléoptère pouvait pondre. Cette méthode a été utilisée dans les tests ultérieurs pour caractériser la nature du stimulant.Des disques de papier filtre inhibés d'extraits au chlorure de méthylène du contenu des structures superficielles de racines tubéreuses de cultivars sensibles induisent une ponte significativement plus importante (p<0,05) sur les morceaux de racines par comparaison avec ceux traités au chlorure de méthylène pur. Une ponte significativement plus importante a aussi été obtenue avec des fractions non-polaires, particulièrement celles qui contiennent un triterpènoïde de cultivars dont l'identification a été tentée.

     

Cloning,characterization, and transformation of the phosphoethanolamine <Emphasis Type="Italic">N</Emphasis>-methyltransferase gene (<Emphasis Type="Italic">ZmPEAMT1</Emphasis>) in maize (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Zea mays</Emphasis> L.)

N-methylation of phosphoethanolamine, the committing step in choline (Cho) biosynthesis in plants, is catalyzed by S-adenosyl-l-methionine: phosphoethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PEAMT, EC 2.1.1.103). Herein we report the cloning and characterization of the novel maize phosphoethanolamine N-methyltransferase gene (ZmPEAMT1) using a combination of bioinformatics and a PCR-based allele mining strategy. The cDNA sequence of ZmPEAMT1 gene is 1,806 bp in length and translates a 495 amino acids peptide. The upstream promoter sequence of ZmPEAMT1 were obtained by TAIL-PCR, and contained four kinds of putative cis-acting regulatory elements, including stress-responsive elements, phytohormone-responsive elements, pollen developmental special activation elements, and light-induced signal transduction elements, as well as several other structural features in common with the promoter of rice and Arabidopsis homologies. RT-PCR analysis showed that expression of ZmPEAMT1 was induced by salt stress and suppressed by high temperature. Over-expression of ZmPEAMT1 enhanced the salt tolerance, root length, and silique number in transgenic Arabidopsis. These data indicated that ZmPEAMT1 maybe involved in maize root development and stress resistance, and maybe having a potential application in maize genetic engineering. Note: Nucleotide sequence data are available in GenBank under the following accession numbers: maize (Zea mays, ZmPEAMT1, AY626156; ZmPEAMT2, AY103779); rice (Oryza sativa, OsPEAMT1/Os01g50030, NM_192178; OsPEAMT2/Os05g47540, XM_475841); wheat (Triticum aestivum, TaPEAMT, AY065971); Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana, AtNMT1/At3g18000, AY091683; AtNMT2/At1g48600, NM_202264; AtNMT3/At1g73600, NM_106018); oilseed rape (Brassica napus, BnPEAMT, AY319479), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum, AF328858), spinach (Spinacia oleracea, AF237633).