Organic emissions from petroleum‐contaminated soil fixed in concrete

This study investigated a solidification treatment process for soils that are contaminated with hydrocarbons at levels of 0.5 and 3.0% by weight of benzene. The contaminated soils were bound in a concrete matrix and the migration of organics from the concrete to air was evaluated. If the hydrocarbon emissions are sufficiently attenuated, the concrete containing such contaminated soil can be used for exterior construction applications.

The experimental specimens consisted of concrete mixtures in which 40% of the sand was replaced with the contaminated soil. The mixtures’ ratio of cement, aggregate, sand, and water is 1:1.5:1.5:0.5 by weight. The study included specimens with and without class C fly ash replacing 10% of the cement. In addition, two unfixed control specimens were prepared for each contamination level. The concrete‐soil mixtures were placed in sealed jars and air was passed through the head space of the jars and then through carbon adsorption tubes for measurement of contaminant flux from the surface of the specimens. Measurements were made during and after concrete curing. The results were fitted to a Fickian diffusion model to estimate effective diffusivity in the concrete‐soil specimens.

The test results showed that the effective diffusivity of the contaminant within the concrete was reduced by three to five orders of magnitude over the molecular diffusivities in unfixed contaminated soil used as control. It was observed that the presence of fly ash in the concrete affects the hydrocarbon release and causes an additional decrease in effective diffusivity of about one order of magnitude. Contaminant emissions during the curing phase were found to exceed rates predicted by the Fickian model. This is apparently due to the water used in the concrete. Total emissions, however, never exceeded values emitted from the unfixed controls. This study indicates that fixation of low hydrocarbon levels within concrete is a technically viable and safe technology for recycling petroleum‐contaminated soil.     

Bioremediation of a petroleum‐contaminated cryic soil: Effects of phosphorus,nitrogen, and temperature

Bioremediation has been shown to be an effective means of treating petroleum‐contaminated soils in cold areas, although the conditions required to maximize bioremediation in cold region (cryic) soils are not well documented. A laboratory study was conducted to investigate the effects of nitrogen and phosphorus levels and temperature on petroleum bioremediation. A cryic entisol contaminated with diesel fuel was treated with nitrogen (0, 400, 800, or 1200 mg/kg of soil) and phosphorus (0, 60, 120, or 180 mg/kg of soil) and incubated at two temperatures (10 and 20°C). At 10°C, bioremediation rates were not affected by fertility treatments. At 20°C, reaction rates were increased by the addition of P, but unaffected by N. Regardless of fertility regime, the rate of diesel loss was much greater in soil incubated at 20°C than in soil incubated at 10°C.     

Plants‐associated microflora and the remediation of oil‐contaminated soil

The use of plants and their rhizospheric microorganisms is a promising emerging technology for remediating contaminated soils. The degradation of total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) in the rhizospheric and nonrhizospheric soil of three domestic plants, namely, alfalfa (Medicaga sativa) broad beans (Vicia faba) and ryegrass (Lolium perenne) was investigated. The experimental data from the studies of plantmicrobe‐soil interactions implicated the enhancement of TPH degradation by the rhizospheric microbial community. Although the three domestic plants exhibited normal growth in the presence of ～1.0% TPH, the degradation was more profound in the case of leguminous plants. The TPH degradation in the soil cultivated with broad beans and alfalfa was 36.6 and 35.8%, respectively, compared with 24% degradation in case of ryegrass. Such a high correlation between plant type and TPH degradation rates indicate that selection for enhanced rhizosphere degradation may be accomplished by selecting leguminous plants.     

Prediction of leachate concentrations in petroleum‐contaminated soils

The efficacy of cleanup methods in reducing gasoline contamination at spill sites is typically determined by measuring benzene, toluene, xylene (BTX), and total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) concentrations in soil samples. Although these values may provide a direct measurement of soil contamination, they may not be indicative of what is transferred to percolating water. This study addresses this issue by measuring TPH, toluene, m‐ and p‐xylene, and naphthalene levels in gasoline‐contaminated soil columns before and after forced‐air venting and relating these values to the aqueous‐phase concentrations measured when water is percolated through the same columns.

Sandy soils with and without organic matter were packed into glass columns. The soils were brought to residual water and residual gasoline saturations by applying a vacuum to a ceramic pressure plate at the column bottom. Venting was performed by passing clean, moist air through the columns. The columns were subsequently leached under unsaturated conditions.

Soil samples were taken from the bottom of the columns upon completion of the venting or leaching phases of the experiments. Toluene, m‐ and p‐xylene, naphthalene, and TPH values were measured in soil samples extracted with either freon or methanol. Aqueous phase concentrations of these compounds were predicted using measured soil concentrations and either Raoult's law or organic matter‐water and fuel‐water partitioning theory (Boyd and Sun, 1990). The predicted results were compared with measured leachate concentrations from the same columns.

Mole fractions estimated from soil concentrations and TPH values used in Raoult's law gave good predictions of aqueous phase concentrations for compounds that had a high mole fraction in the residual nonaqueous phase liquid (NAPL). For compounds at low concentrations in the residual NAPL, an approach using a distribution coefficient that accounted for both the organic matter and residual NAPL in the soil provided better estimates than those based on Raoult's law.     

Dose assessment considerations for remedial action on plutonium‐contaminated soil

This article describes some of the dose assessment issues that should be considered when planning and executing a soil remedial activity. What is the proper dose scenario/ model? What are the appropriate cleanup criteria? How is the data gathered and analyzed (both before and after) cleanup?

By describing the features and aspects of how these issues and others were considered or not considered in planning for the remedial action underway at Maralinga, Australia (former site of the Nuclear Weapons Testing Program of the United Kingdom) when compared with historical international experience of this type, the author attempts to illustrate that it is almost nonsensical to preselect a single soil value for Pu in soil (for national or international use), particulariy when expressed as a soil concentration (pCi/g or bq/g). This is especially so when the problem is Pu on the surface or near the surface of the soil. This is the situation common at nuclear test sites where “one point safe tests” were conducted. At these locations aspects of resuspension (i.e., area size, particle size, wind speed, etc.) become the dominant drivers for the development of cleanup criteria, sampling regimes, data gathering, and analysis regimes, etc. These particular elements and others are discussed and illustrated.     

Estimation of effective cleanup radius for soil‐vapor extraction systems

Soil‐vapor extraction (SVE) is a standard and effective in situ treatment for the removal of volatile contaminants from vadose‐zone soil. The duration of SVE operation required to reach site closure is quite variable, however, ranging up to several years or more. An understanding of the contaminant recovery rate as a function of distance from each vapor‐extraction well allows SVE systems to be designed so that cleanup goals can be achieved within a specified time frame.

A simple one‐dimensional model has been developed that provides a rough estimate of the effective cleanup radius (defined as “the maximum distance from a vapor extraction point through which sufficient air is drawn to remove the required fraction of contamination in the desired time") for SVE systems. Because the model uses analytical rather than numerical methods, it has advantages over more sophisticated, multidimensional models, including simplicity, speed, versatility, and robustness.

The contaminant removal rate at a given distance from the vapor‐extraction point is assumed to be a function of the local rate of soil‐gas flow, the contaminant soil concentration, and the contaminant volatility. Soil‐gas flow rate as a function of distance from the vapor‐extraction point is estimated from pilot test data by assuming that the infiltration of atmospheric air through the soil surface is related to the vacuum in the soil. Although widely applicable, the model should be used with some caution when the vadose zone is highly stratified or when venting contaminated soil greater than 30 ft below grade. Since 1992, Groundwater Technology, Inc. has been using this model routinely as a design tool for SVE systems.     

Bioremediation of oil‐contaminated soil in Kuwait. I. landfarming to remediate oil‐contaminated soil

During the Gulf Crisis, the State of Kuwait was subjected to hazards caused by the oil well fires. The discharged oil formed over 300 oil lakes, covering land areas in excess of 49 km². In addition, deposits from aerial fallout covered massive areas of Kuwait's desert soil. It has been widely recognized that the heavily oil‐contaminated soil must be remediated in order to avoid total damage to the land, water ecosystems, and/or the eventual release of hazardous particulate compositions to the atmosphere. A large number of diverse technological options were being considered for the remediation of contaminated soil. Bioremediation techniques involving enhanced landfarming was selected and evaluated at pilot scale

The experiments were initiated in November 1992 at the Burgan oil field in which 16 landfarming plots of 120 m² each were constructed. The study continued for 18 months, during which time petroleum hydrocarbon concentration, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), and heavy metals were monitored regularly. The result obtained showed that landfarming treatment resulted in more than 80% reduction of oil contamination within 15 months. The treatment also resulted in a substantial reduction of the PAHs concentrations.     

In situ bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon–contaminated soil: isolation and application of a Rhodococcus strain

International Microbiology - Due to low consumption and high efficiency, in situ microbial remediation of petroleum hydrocarbons (PHs)-contaminated sites in in-service petrochemical enterprises has...     

Modeling soil–root water transport and competition for single and mixed crops

A knowledge of above and below ground plant interactions for water is essential to understand the performance of intercropped systems. In this work, root water potential dynamics and water uptake partitioning were compared between single crops and intercrops, using a simulation model. Four root maps having 498, 364, 431 and 431 soil-root contacts were used. In the first and second cases, single crops with deep and surface roots were considered, whereas in the third and fourth cases, roots of two mixed crops were simultaneously considered with different row spacing (40 cm and 60 cm). Two soils corresponding to a clay and a silty clay loam were used in the calculations. A total maximum evapotranspiration of 6 mm d^-1 for both single or mixed crops was considered, for the mixed crops however, two transpiration distributions between the crops were analyzed (3:3 mm d^-1, or 4:2 mm d^-1 for each crop, respectively). The model was based on a previous theoretical framework applied to single or intercropped plants having spatially distributed roots in a two-dimensional domain. Although water stress occurred more rapidly in the loam than in the clay, due to the rapid decrease of the soil water reserve in the loam, the role of the root arrangement appeared to be crucial for water availability. Interactions between the distribution of transpiration among mixed crops and the architecture of the root systems which were in competition led to water movements from zones with one plant to another, or vice versa, which corresponded to specific competition or facilitation effects. Decreasing the distances between roots may increase competition for water, although it may determine greater water potential gradients in the soil that increase lateral or vertical water fluxes in the soil profile. The effects of the root competition on water uptake were quite complicated, depending on both environmental conditions, soil hydrodynamic properties, and time scales. Although some biological adaptive mechanisms were disregarded in the analysis, the physically 2-D based model may be considered as a tool to study the exploitation of environmental heterogeneity at microsite scales.     

Electronic sensory systems for taste and odour monitoring in water – Developments and limitations

Taste and odour causingchemicals in drinking water supplies can bedetected and identified using a variety ofanalytical techniques and sensory methods.Currently limitations exist in applying thesetechniques and methods to the continuousmonitoring of taste and odour episodes.Electronic sensory systems so called``electronic noses' using non-specific gassensors could offer a rapid and relative simpletechnique for continuous monitoring of waterquality. Laboratory and field-based continuouswater monitoring showed that introducedpollutants such as 2-chlorophenol and geosmincould be detected by a sensor array, howeverthe detection limits were significant higherthan the odour threshold concentrations (OTC)for the respective compounds. The conditioningof the monitoring system in a temperaturecontrolled environment for on-line headspacegeneration and transfer reduced the impact ofenvironmental fluctuations on the sensorresponse profiles. At present, a sensor arraybased monitoring system could be applied to theintake protection of taste and odour causingcompounds in water supplies with a minimum OTCof 10 ppm.     

Comprehensive GC²/MS for the monitoring of aromatic tar oil constituents during biodegradation in a historically contaminated soil

The constituents of tar oil comprise a wide range of physico-chemically heterogeneous pollutants of environmental concern. Besides the sixteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons defined as priority pollutants by the US-EPA (EPA-PAHs), a wide range of substituted (NSO-PAC) and alkylated (alkyl-PAC) aromatic tar oil compounds are gaining increased attention for their toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic and/or teratogenic properties. Investigations on tar oil biodegradation in soil are in part hampered by the absence of an efficient analytical tool for the simultaneous analysis of this wide range of compounds with dissimilar analytical properties. Therefore, the present study sets out to explore the applicability of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC2/MS) for the simultaneous measurement of compounds with differing polarity or that are co-eluting in one-dimensional systems. Aerobic tar oil biodegradation in a historically contaminated soil was analyzed over 56 days in lab-scale bioslurry tests. Forty-three aromatic compounds were identified with GC2/MS in one single analysis. The number of alkyl chains on a molecule was found to prime over alkyl chain length in hampering compound biodegradation. In most cases, substitution of carbon with nitrogen and oxygen was related to increased compound degradation in comparison to unalkylated and sulphur- or unsubstituted PAH with a similar ring number.The obtained results indicate that GC2/MS can be employed for the rapid assessment of a large variety of structurally heterogeneous environmental contaminants. Its application can contribute to facilitate site assessment, development and control of microbial cleanup technologies for tar oil contaminated sites.     

Bioremediation of metal‐contaminated surface and groundwaters

Microorganisms immobilize, mobilize, or transform metals by extracellular precipitation reactions, intracellular accumulation, oxidation and reduction reactions, methylation and demethylation, and extracellular binding and complexation. Nearly all of these microbe/metal interactions occur within the wetlands approach to acid mine drainage treatment, a process that is rapidly gaining support as a low‐maintenance, cost‐effective approach to solving an important environmental problem. Several proprietary processes, which employ nonliving microorganisms that are immobilized in polymer matrixes, are entering the water treatment market. These processes take advantage of negatively charged functional groups on cell walls and exopolymers of microorganisms that bind cationic metals. These biosorbents effectively remove low concentrations (<1 to about 20 mg/L) of heavy metal cations in the presence of high concentrations of alkaline earth metals (Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺) and organic contaminants to levels lower than the U.S. National Drinking Water Standards. Immobilization of the biomass in polymer matrixes yields products that have substantial chemical and mechanical integrity. These immobilized products lend themselves to application in conventionally engineered systems such as up‐flow and down‐flow columns, expanded‐bed systems, dispersed‐bed systems, and low‐maintenance trough systems. Biosorption will probably play an important role in achieving the strict environmental standards now being enforced.     

Abundance of archaeal and bacterial ammonia oxidizers – Possible bioindicator for soil monitoring

Many soil functions are driven by soil microorganisms and they have therefore been identified as appropriate indicators for monitoring of soil status. Genetic profiling of the bacterial ammonia oxidizing community was recently top-scored as soil biological indicator (Ritz et al., 2009). However, ammonia oxidation is not only performed by bacteria, but also ammonia oxidizing archaea. Based on the suggested niche differentiation between these two groups and findings that they are susceptible to environmental change in soil ecosystems at varying scales, we suggest that the abundance of these two communities rather than community profiling of the ammonia oxidizing bacteria could serve as a relevant and cost-effective bioindicator for soil monitoring.     

Microbial diagnostic microarray for food‐ and water‐borne pathogens

A microbial diagnostic microarray for the detection of the most relevant bacterial food- and water-borne pathogens and indicator organisms was developed and thoroughly validated. The microarray platform based on sequence-specific end labelling of oligonucleotides and the pyhylogenetically robust gyrB marker gene allowed a highly specific (resolution on genus/species level) and sensitive (0.1% relative and 10⁴ cfu absolute detection sensitivity) detection of the target pathogens. Validation was performed using a set of reference strains and a set of spiked environmental samples. Reliability of the obtained data was additionally verified by independent analysis of the samples via fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and conventional microbiological reference methods. The applicability of this diagnostic system for food analysis was demonstrated through extensive validation using artificially and naturally contaminated spiked food samples. The microarray-based pathogen detection was compared with the corresponding microbiological reference methods (performed according to the ISO norm). Microarray results revealed high consistency with the reference microbiological data.     

Multi‐taxon and forest structure sampling for identification of indicators and monitoring of old‐growth forest

Abstract

The most commonly used old‐growth forest indicators are structural attributes; nevertheless, they do not necessarily represent the biodiversity value of old‐growth forests. The aim of this study is to analyse the relationships between species richness data of different taxa and structural indicators of old‐growth and to identify taxonomic/functional groups, species and structural attributes that may be used as indicators of old‐growth. To achieve this goal we sampled forest structure, vascular plants, lichens, bryophytes, fungi, saproxylic beetles and birds in mature and old‐growth stands in southern Italy. We calculated Spearman’s correlation coefficients between species richness data and structural attributes. Analyses of indicator species, co‐occurrences and two‐way clusters were performed on the multi‐taxonomic list. The group of vascular plants most significantly correlated with other groups in terms of species richness; furthermore, it displays the highest proportion of between‐group co‐occurrences. The resulting multi‐taxonomic list of potential indicators may serve as an effective means of detecting and monitoring forest ecosystems; however, for this goal, structure‐based indicators, such as forest structural attributes and vascular plant species composition, are of primary importance.     

Does biochar influence soil physical properties and soil water availability?

Aims

This study aims to (i) determine the effects of incorporating 47 Mg ha^?1 acacia green waste biochar on soil physical properties and water relations, and (ii) to explore the different mechanisms by which biochar influences soil porosity.

Methods

The pore size distribution of the biochar was determined by scanning electron microscope and mercury porosimetry. Soil physical properties and water relations were determined by in situ tension infiltrometers, desorption and evaporative flux on intact cores, pressure chamber analysis at ?1,500 kPa, and wet aggregate sieving.

Results

Thirty months after incorporation, biochar application had no significant effect on soil moisture content, drainable porosity between –1.0 and ?10 kPa, field capacity, plant available water capacity, the van Genuchten soil water retention parameters, aggregate stability, nor the permanent wilting point. However, the biochar-amended soil had significantly higher near-saturated hydraulic conductivity, soil water content at ?0.1 kPa, and significantly lower bulk density than the unamended control. Differences were attributed to the formation of large macropores (>1,200 μm) resulting from greater earthworm burrowing in the biochar-amended soil.

Conclusion

We found no evidence to suggest application of biochar influenced soil porosity by either direct pore contribution, creation of accommodation pores, or improved aggregate stability.     

Using microalgae for remediation of crude petroleum oil–water emulsions

Crude petroleum oil spills are among the most important organic contaminations. While the separated oils accumulated on the surface water are relatively easily removed, the emulsified portions are more difficult to remove and pose significant threats to the environment. Bioremediation using bacteria has proven to be an effective method, but the biomass produced in this case does not have any significant remunerative value. In this work, microalgae were proposed to combine emulsified oil remediation process with the potential of microalgae as a biofuel feedstock, thus enhancing the economic and environmental benefits of the process. A freshwater strain of Chlorella vulgaris was grown in water containing different concentrations of emulsified crude oil at different temperatures. The specific growth rate (μ_max) of the microalgae for each initial oil concentration was determined and was found to increase with the increase in initial oil concentration. For example, at 30°C, the specific growth rate, μ increased from 0.477 to 0.784 per day as the oil concentration increased from 57 to 222 mg/L. At 30°C, the effect of substrate concentration agreed with that of the microalgae growth, whereas at 40°C, the drop in oil concentration decreased with the increase in concentration. The results were fitted to a modified Monod kinetics model that used specific interfacial area as the influential substrate instead of the actual concentration. The results of this study clearly show the potential of using microalgae for emulsified oil remediation at relatively high concentrations.     

Plant hydraulic lift of soil water – implications for crop production and land restoration

Zinc deficiency is a well-documented problem in food crops, causing decreased crop yields and nutritional quality. Generally, the regions in the world with Zn-deficient soils are also characterized by widespread Zn deficiency in humans. Recent estimates indicate that nearly half of world population suffers from Zn deficiency. Cereal crops play an important role in satisfying daily calorie intake in developing world, but they are inherently very low in Zn concentrations in grain, particularly when grown on Zn-deficient soils. The reliance on cereal-based diets may induce Zn deficiency-related health problems in humans, such as impairments in physical development, immune system and brain function. Among the strategies being discussed as major solution to Zn deficiency, plant breeding strategy (e.g., genetic biofortification) appears to be a most sustainable and cost-effective approach useful in improving Zn concentrations in grain. The breeding approach is, however, a long-term process requiring a substantial effort and resources. A successful breeding program for biofortifying food crops with Zn is very much dependent on the size of plant-available Zn pools in soil. In most parts of the cereal-growing areas, soils have, however, a variety of chemical and physical problems that significantly reduce availability of Zn to plant roots. Hence, the genetic capacity of the newly developed (biofortified) cultivars to absorb sufficient amount of Zn from soil and accumulate it in the grain may not be expressed to the full extent. It is, therefore, essential to have a short-term approach to improve Zn concentration in cereal grains. Application of Zn fertilizers or Zn-enriched NPK fertilizers (e.g., agronomic biofortification) offers a rapid solution to the problem, and represents useful complementary approach to on-going breeding programs. There is increasing evidence showing that foliar or combined soil+foliar application of Zn fertilizers under field conditions are highly effective and very practical way to maximize uptake and accumulation of Zn in whole wheat grain, raising concentration up to 60 mg Zn kg⁻¹. Zinc-enriched grains are also of great importance for crop productivity resulting in better seedling vigor, denser stands and higher stress tolerance on potentially Zn-deficient soils. Agronomic biofortification strategy appears to be essential in keeping sufficient amount of available Zn in soil solution and maintaining adequate Zn transport to the seeds during reproductive growth stage. Finally, agronomic biofortification is required for optimizing and ensuring the success of genetic biofortification of cereal grains with Zn. In case of greater bioavailability of the grain Zn derived from foliar applications than from soil, agronomic biofortification would be a very attractive and useful strategy in solving Zn deficiency-related health problems globally and effectively.     

Role of oil‐seed cakes for the management of plant‐parasitic nematodes and soil‐inhabiting fungi on lentil and mungben

The oil‐seed cakes of neem (Azadirachta indica), castor (Ricinus communis), linseed (Linum usitatissimum), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), mustard (Brassica campestris) and duan (Eruca sativa) were tested for their efficacious nature against plant‐parasitic nematodes and soil‐inhabiting fungi infesting lentil and also on the subsequent crop, mungbean in field trials. The population of plant‐parasitic nematodes such as Meloidogyne incognita, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Tylenchorhynchus brassicae, Helicoty‐lenchus indicus etc., and the frequency of pathogenic fungi Macrophomina phaseolina, Fusarium oxysporum f. lentis, Rhizoctonia solarii, Septoria leguminum, Sclerotium rolfsii, etc., were significantly reduced by the incorporation of oil‐seed cakes, however, the frequency of saprophytic fungi Aspergillus niger, Trichoderma viridae, Penicillium degetatum, etc., was increased. A several‐fold improvement was observed in plant‐growth parameters such as plant weight, percent pollen fertility, pod numbers, chlorophyll content, nitrate reducíase activity in leaves and root‐nodulation. The residual effects of different oil‐seed cakes were also noted in the subsequent crop, mungbean, in the next growing season. The population of plant‐parasitic nematodes and frequency of soil‐inhabiting fungi also influenced by the depth of ploughing.     

Stabilization and solidification of hydrocarbon‐contaminated soils in concrete

This article describes an experimental program developed to investigate the potential for using hydrocarbon‐contaminated soils as a fine aggregate replacement in concrete. Five different contaminated soil types with a total petroleum hydrocarbon content of less than 1% were investigated. For each soil type, three concrete mixtures were obtained by replacing sand with contaminated soils (10, 20, and 40% replacement ratio). The resulting concrete was tested for setting times, compression strength, flexural strength, durability, and teachability of benzene to water.

The results indicate that the addition of hydrocarbon‐contaminated soil adversely affects the strength of concrete. The strength reduction at each soil replacement level depends on contamination concentration, contaminant type, and soil type. The durability of the tested concrete is comparable to normal concrete. For all five soils at a 40% replacement ratio, the leachability of benzene was nondetectable after 24 h and after 10 d. After testing the leachability of artificially contaminated soils (0.5 and 3% neat benzene contamination) for 24 h, it was found that the leaching of benzene increases with the percentage of contamination. However, the fraction of benzene that leached was about 95% lower than the values for loose soils.