Reliability and validity of the performance index evaluation among men's and women's college basketball players

The Performance Index Evaluation (PIE) is a basketball-specific assessment of physical performance. The battery consists of items typically included in sport assessments, such as agility and power, but also addresses an often-overlooked performance component, namely, core strength. The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability (test-retest, interrater), validity (criterion-related, construct-related), and practice effect of the PIE among men's and women's college basketball players. Test-retest estimates were moderate for men (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.79) and poor for women (ICC = 0.35), but interrater reliability was high (ICC = 0.95). Criterion-related validity evidence (i.e., relationship between PIE and playing time) was weak, but construct-related evidence was acceptable (i.e., college players had higher scores than high school players). A practice effect was also demonstrated among men. In conclusion, reliability of the battery should be improved before its use is recommended among college basketball players. Additionally, the battery does not appear to be a predictor of performance but does appear to distinguish between skill levels.     

The influence of basic body and hand anthropometry on the results of different throwing tests in young handball and basketball players

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between basic body and specific hand anthropometric parameters with some specific and non-specific throw test results in young male handball and basketball players. The subjects included 34 handball and 38 basketball players of the 10-11 years old age group, 39 handball and 22 basketball players of the 12-13 years old age group and 39 handball players of the 14-15 years old age group. Body height and body mass, arms' span, height with outstretched hands and sitting height were the basic anthropometric parameters to be measured. For hand anthropometry, 15 specific hand parameters were measured using the method presented by Visnapuu & Jürim?e (2007). Stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that medicine ball throw results in the youngest age group are highly dependent on the body height (handball players) and body mass (basketball players). In the middle age group, the most important parameter from the hand anthropometry is TL (handball) or height with outstretched hands (basketball). In the oldest group of handball players, the medicine ball throw results were dependent on the P2 from hand anthropometry and sitting height. Quite different anthropometric parameters appeared to influence the handball or basketball throw results. In the youngest age group, most important were body height (handball) or LFL (basketball). In the middle age group, the most important was height with outstretched hands and in the oldest handball players LFL and sitting height. Handball or basketball pass on speed depended on the combination of body mass and FS5 and body height with height with outstretched hands (even 61.40%, R2 x 100) in the oldest age group. The results of passing the handball or basketball on precision were dependent on body height and P3 or P1 among basketball players in the youngest group. In the middle age group the combination of FS3 and body mass and LFL and height with outstretched hands were the most influential. Anthropometric parameters influence on the passing of the ball on speed or precision is lower in handball players compared with basketball players. Our conclusion is that the basic anthropometric parameters are slightly more important than hand anthropometry that influenced different throw tests results in young handball and basketball players.     

Body composition and physical fitness of female volleyball and basketball players of the Japan inter-high school championship teams

This study evaluated the body composition (underwater weighing) and cardiorespiratory function (VO(2)max and O(2)debt max measured by the treadmill exercise test) in 12 members of the women's volleyball team (mean age 17.4 years) and 11 members of the women's basketball team (mean age 17.6 years) that won the championship in the Japan Inter-high School Meeting. We also examined differences in the physical abilities between the members of the top teams of different events. The following results were obtained. (1) The mean values of the height and body weight were 168.7+/-5.89 cm and 59.7+/-5.73 kg in the volleyball players and 166.5+/-7.87 cm and 58.8+/-6.85 kg in the basketball players. (2) The mean %Fat was 18.4+/-3.29% in the volleyball players and 15.7+/-5.05% in the basketball players, and was similar to the reported values in elite adult players. (3) The mean VO(2)max was 2.78+/-0.32 L x min(-1) (46.5+/-2.90 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) in the volleyball players and 3.32+/-0.31 L x min(-1) (56.7+/-4.17 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) in the basketball players, and was similar to the reported values in elite adult players. (4) The mean O(2)debt max was 6.18+/-1.15 L (103.2+/-12.40 ml x kg(-1)) in the volleyball players and 7.92+/-1.80 L (134.3+/-23.24 ml x kg(-1)) in the basketball players. These values were 2.6 times and 3.3 times as high as the average values in high school students in general. (5) No significant difference was observed in any measured item of the physique, skinfold thickness, or body composition between the volleyball players and basketball players. (6) The VO(2)max and O(2)debt max were 22% and 28% higher in the basketball players than in the volleyball players.From these results, the female volleyball players and basketball players evaluated in this study had the physical abilities needed to win the championship in the Japan Inter-high School Meets, i.e. a large FFM and excellent aerobic and anaerobic work capacities. Also, basketball appears to require higher aerobic and anaerobic work capacities than volleyball.     

A training program to improve neuromuscular and performance indices in female high school basketball players

The purpose of this study was to determine if a sports-specific training program could improve neuromuscular and performance indices in female high school basketball players. We combined components from a published anterior cruciate ligament injury prevention program for jump and strength training with other exercises and drills to improve speed, agility, overall strength, and aerobic conditioning. We hypothesized that this sports-specific training program would lead to significant improvements in neuromuscular and performance indices in high school female basketball players. Fifty-seven female athletes aged 14-17 years participated in the supervised 6-week program, 3 d·wk(-1) for approximately 90-120 minutes per session. The program was conducted on the basketball court and in weight room facilities in high schools. The athletes underwent a video drop-jump test, multistage fitness test, vertical jump test, and an 18-m sprint test before and upon completion of the training program. All the subjects attended at least 14 training sessions. After training, a significant increase was found in the mean estimated VO2max (p < 0.001), with 89% of the athletes improving this score. In the drop-jump video test, significant increases were found in the mean absolute knee separation distance (p < 0.0001) and in the mean normalized knee separation distance (p < 0.0001), indicating a more neutral lower limb alignment on landing. A significant improvement was found in the vertical jump test (p < 0.0001); however, the effect size was small (0.09). No improvement was noted in the sprint test. This program significantly improved lower limb alignment on a drop-jump test and estimated maximal aerobic power and may be implemented preseason or off-season in high school female basketball players.     

Differences in conative characteristics and perceived group cohesion of the basketball players playing in different positions in the team

Identification of differences in individual conative characteristics and in perceived group cohesion of the basketball players playing in different positions in the team could provide guidelines for a better selection of basketball players and better coaching work. The aim of our study was to determine the differences in relation to the positions of guards and forwards/centres, and the four major positions in the team. The final sample of subjects (74 basketball players) is selected from the initial sample of 107 subjects, selected from nine men's senior basketball teams that played in A-1 Croatian men's basketball league championship in 2006/2007. The results showed no statistically significant difference between basketball players who play in different positions in the team, neither in relation to two basic positions in the team (guards as opposed to forwards/centres), nor in relation to the four positions in the team (point guard, shooting guard, small forward, power forward/centre).     

Pragmatic validity of the combined model of expert system for assessment and analysis of the actual quality overall structure of basketball players

The authors presumed that it was possible to replace certain criteria of the expert system aimed at evaluating actual quality of basketball players, proposed by Trnini? et al., with the corresponding indicators of situation-related efficiency (official statistics of the game). Hence, the aim of this study is to verify the potential of establishing such a combined model of expert system that would consist of both the evaluation criteria and certain number of objectively measurable aspects of actual quality (player's partial performance or playing efficiency) and to determine its pragmatic validity. To achieve the aim the sample comprised of 60 basketball players that were competing in the Croatian First Division League in the 1998/99 season was tested. The sample and their quality of play was described by the two different types of data: 1) the 13 situation-related efficiency data (FIBA statistics of the game) utilized to objectively assess performance or playing effectiveness of players, collected at 132 games played by 12 teams, and 2) the evaluation data, subjectively assessing actual quality of players, i.e. their perceived overall performance, collected at the end of the season from the 10 basketball trainers. On the basis of relatively high correlations within the 7 pairs of mutually equivalent variables (from 0.63 to 0.84) and the extremely high correlation (0.97) obtained between the perceived overall performance (actual quality), subjectively assessed with respect to the 19 criteria of the original expert evaluation system, and the overall performance (actual quality) assessed by the combined model (where the 8 evaluation criteria had been replaced by the 7 corresponding indicators ofplaying efficiency), it is feasible to consider the combined model of expert system as an acceptable tool for more objective and economical assessment of actual quality of basketball players.     

Differences in situation efficacy indicators at the elite basketball players that play on different positions in the team

The aim of our study was to determine the differences in situational efficacy for basketball players, in relation to their team positions: between guards and forwards/centres, and between the players on the four major positions in the team. The final sample of subjects (74 basketball players) is selected from the initial sample of 107 subjects, selected from nine men's senior basketball teams that played in A-1 Croatian men's basketball league championship in 2006/2007. Results confirmed the hypothesis that there is a significant difference between different groups of players: point/shooting guards, comparing with forwards/centres; players that play on four positions: point guard, shooting guard, small forward, power forward/centre. Guards have shown greater efficiency and utilization of the three-point shots, while centres are better in two-point shots. Guards have a greater number of assists, successful and unsuccessful three-point shots, while centres are better in the offensive and defensive rebounds, as same as in successful and unsuccessful two-point shots. No statistically significant differences were found among the players on the guard positions (point guard and shooting guard), while only one statistically significant difference is found among the players on the position forward/centre (small forward and power forward/centre).     

Relationship of anthropometrical, physiological and motor attributes to sport-specific skills

The purpose of this pilot study was to investigate the importance of the athlete's motor capabilities in success in sport. More precisely, the association of anthropometrical and physiological attributes, as well as motor abilities of elite basketball players with play elements of basketball. The subjects were seven elite basketball players. At the end of the competitive season, the anthropometrical and physiological features were measured to establish the physical fitness of the subjects. Both general and sport-specific motor tests were done. The coach estimated the performance of each player during the games of the competitive season. The coach's data sheet incorporated 14 parameters of the game. Regression analyses indicated significant correlation between certain variables of the laboratory tests and the data of the coach's estimation statistics. Knowing these relationships provides us with valuable predictive information about player's capabilities in sport.     

Basketball exercise and secretory immunoglobulin A.

This study examined saliva levels of immunoglobulin A (IgA) before and after three games and three practice sessions during the basketball season. Saliva was collected from 27 prepubescent boys (10-12 years) in a small Fry league and 23 postpubescent boys (16-18 years) on a high school varsity team. Saliva samples were frozen for later assay using a standard enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. IgA levels were significantly increased after games 1 and 3 in both age groups and after practice 3 in the high school athletes. Over the 2 months of saliva collections the pre-exercise IgA increased significantly with games 2 and 3 higher than game 1, and practice 3 higher than practices 1 and 2, in both age groups. These results indicate that basketball exercise can increase saliva IgA levels and that chronic exercise over the basketball season may increase the resting levels of IgA. These changes may give athletes more protection against respiratory infections both after exercise and in the resting state later in the season.     

Physical demands on young elite European female basketball players with special reference to speed, agility, explosive strength, and take-off power

The aim of the study was to determine and analyze the level of certain motor abilities (acceleration and agility, the explosive strength of arms, and take-off power) of young elite European female basketball players. We also wanted to establish whether there were any differences between 3 groups of female basketball players who differed in terms of their playing performance. The sample of subjects consists of 65 female basketball players aged 14.49 (± 0.61) years who were divided into 3 groups (divisions A, B, and C of the European Championships). We compare the groups by using 8 motor tests. p Values <0.05 were considered statistically significant. The results show that the division C players achieved below-average results in all tests and thus differ from the players from divisions A and B whose test results were relatively homogeneous. The division C players differ from those from divisions A and B mainly in the 6 × 5-m sprint dribble (discriminant ratio coefficients [DRC] = 0.435), medicine ball throw (DRC = 0.375), and 20-m sprint (DRC = 0.203). Discriminatory power in the 6 × 5-m sprint dribble and 20-m sprint tests is preserved even after eliminating the effect of body height. We assume that, besides the deficit in body height and training status, this is also 1 of the key reasons for these players' lower playing efficiency compared to those from divisions A and B. We hope the findings of this study will enable the generation of model values, which can assist basketball coaches for this age category in basketball clubs, high schools, national teams, and basketball camps.     

Predicting performance and injury resilience from movement quality and fitness scores in a basketball team over 2 years

The purpose of this study was to see if specific tests of fitness and movement quality could predict injury resilience and performance in a team of basketball players over 2 years (2 playing seasons). It was hypothesized that, in a basketball population, movement and fitness scores would predict performance scores and that movement and fitness scores would predict injury resilience. A basketball team from a major American university (N = 14) served as the test population in this longitudinal trial. Variables linked to fitness, movement ability, speed, strength, and agility were measured together with some National Basketball Association (NBA) combine tests. Dependent variables of performance indicators (such as games and minutes played, points scored, assists, rebounds, steal, and blocks) and injury reports were tracked for the subsequent 2 years. Results showed that better performance was linked with having a stiffer torso, more mobile hips, weaker left grip strength, and a longer standing long jump, to name a few. Of the 3 NBA combine tests administered here, only a faster lane agility time had significant links with performance. Some movement qualities and torso endurance were not linked. No patterns with injury emerged. These observations have implications for preseason testing and subsequent training programs in an attempt to reduce future injury and enhance playing performance.     

A Study on the Importance of Core Strength and Coordination Balance during Basketball Based on Biomechanics

When basketball players play against each other in a game, better coordinated balance can give them a better advantage. This paper briefly introduces the coordination balance and core strength of basketball players. Twenty basketball varsity members were selected from Chengdu College of University of Electronic Science and Technology of China as subjects for the test. The athletes were randomly divided into a control group and an experimental group. The control group received regular strength training, and the experimental group received core strength training in addition to regular training. Both groups underwent isometric muscle strength test, coordination and balance test and shooting percentage test before and after training. The results demonstrated that muscle group strength increased in the control group after conventional training, but the experimental group showed more significant improvement in muscle group strength after additional core strength training; the experimental group had better coordination and balance ability after core strength training; the experimental group had a significantly higher shooting percentage after core strength training due to the improvement of coordination and balance ability.     

Relation between maximal aerobic power and the ability to repeat sprints in young basketball players

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of maximal aerobic power (V(.-)O2max peak) level on the ability to repeat sprints (calculated as performance decrement and total sprinting time) in young basketball players. Subjects were 18 junior, well-trained basketball players (age, 16.8 +/- 1.2 years; height, 181.3 +/- 5.7 cm; body mass, 73 +/- 10 kg; V(.-)O2max peak, 59.6 +/- 6.9 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)). Match analysis and time-motion analysis of competitive basketball games was used to devise a basketball-specific repeated-sprint ability protocol consisting of ten 15-m shuttle run sprints with 30 s of passive recovery. Pre, post, and post plus 3-minute blood lactate concentrations were 2.5 +/- 0.7, 13.6 +/- 3.1, and 14.2 +/- 3.5 mmol x L(-1), respectively. The mean fatigue index (FI) value was 3.4 +/- 2.3% (range, 1.1-9.1%). No significant correlations were found between V(.-)O2max peak and either FI or total sprint time. A negative correlation (r = -0.75, p = 0.01) was found between first-sprint time and FI. The results of this study showed that V(.-)O2max peak is not a predictor of repeated-sprint ability in young basketball players. The high blood lactate concentrations found at the end of the repeated-sprint ability protocol suggest its use for building lactate tolerance in conditioned basketball players.     

A cross-cultural analysis of positive illusions and sport performance levels in American, Croatian, and Norwegian basketball players

The present study examined the degree to which positive illusion is associated with sport performance in basketball players among 3 different cultures: The United States of America, Croatia, and Norway. Positive illusion is a cognitive characteristic that is common in mentally healthy individuals, and becomes especially important in the athletic arena. The model tested in this study depicts the level of positive illusion as the main predictor variable and the performance of the basketball players as the criterion variable. The Positive Illusion Sports Scale was used to measure the predictor variable while The Basketball Evaluation System was used to measure the criterion variable. Participants were 239 competitive male basketball players, 122 from USA, 57 from Croatia and 60 from Norway. Results showed that positive illusion was directly (positively) related to actual success and that these relationships were statistically significant and consistent with positive illusion as a theoretical construct for predicting behavior and success.     

Basketball ability testing and category for players with mental retardation: 8-month training effect

Although sport for athletes with mental retardation (MR) is achieving an important role, the literature concerning basketball tests and training is still poor. The aims of this study were to verify whether the basketball test battery could be an appropriate modality to classify the players in the Promotion (Pro) category, to assess basketball abilities before (PRE) and after (POST) an 8-month training in players with MR in relation to Competitive (Comp) and Pro categories, to analyze the variation of specific basketball abilities based on subjects' MR diagnosis. Forty-one male basketball players with MR (17 Comp and 24 Pro; age range 18-45 years; MR: 15% mild, 54% moderate, 29% severe, and 2% profound) were assessed PRE and POST training through the basketball test battery, which assessed 4 ability levels of increasing difficulty (from I to IV), each one characterized by the analysis of fundamental areas (ball handling, reception, passing, and shooting). Level I was significantly changed after the intervention period regardless of the Category, whereas shooting was affected by the interaction between Category and Intervention. The results showed significant differences between categories in the scores of individual global, level I, level II, level III, and in all fundamental areas. Individual global score in both categories significantly increased. The players of Comp significantly improved in level III, in ball handling, reception, passing, and shooting scores. The players of Pro improved significantly in level II, in ball handling, reception, and passing scores. Individual global, ability levels I-III, and fundamental area scores were negatively correlated to the MR level indicating that the players with a lower MR obtained higher ability scores. In conclusion, it was found that the basketball test battery could be useful for improving and monitoring training in both Comp and Pro players.     

Factors affecting postural stability of healthy young adults

The objective of this paper was to examine the relationship between body balancing functions and body characteristics, motor abilities and reaction time. Subjects were 33 university students and 11 professional basketball players sorted into four groups of athletic and non-athletic women and men. Each group consisted of eleven subjects. The body height, weight was measured and the body mass index (BMI) calculated. A bioelectrical device computed the body fat (%). Static and dynamic motor tests, as well as static and dynamic balance tests were used. The reaction time (RT) to sound and light stimuli was measured. The regression analysis of the data revealed significant linear relationship between the amplitude of body sways (BS) and BMI in all groups. Also high correlation was found between back muscle strength and BS in all groups except the non-athletic women. Negative correlation was found between endurance capacity and BS in basketball players, i.e. at higher endurance capacity smaller amplitude BS occurred (r = -0.620, p < 0.04). The RT values showed significant correlations with BS only in the basketball players (r = 0.620, p < 0.04). It is concluded that increase in BMI, back muscle strength and endurance capacity is associated with better postural stability. Some motor abilities (hip flexibility, vertical jumping) show no significant correlations with body balancing, while other motor performances (static hanging) and RT values correlate well with BS only in the well-trained elite basketball players.     

Peddling sport: liberal multiculturalism and the racial triangulation of blackness,Chineseness and Native American-ness in professional basketball

Abstract

Deploying liberal multiculturalist discourse, the media depicts professional basketball as a post-racial space where all talented players, regardless of their race, can thrive if they work hard. An analysis of the construction of non-white players in the 1930s and in 2010 demonstrates sport as modulated by racially charged discourse. As part of a liberal multiculturalist frame, the coding of basketball players as hero, threat and novelty serve to privilege whiteness and replicate racialized and gendered images that can be traced to the 1930s. In doing so, the article highlights how liberal multiculturalism involves racial triangulation and the simultaneous processes of hyper-racialization and de-racialization.     

Functional plasticity of spinal circuits in long-term sports activity adaptation

Physical activity-dependent mechanisms of functional changes in spinal cord circuitry were studied in athletes involved in sports for a long time. New data were obtained for functional plasticity the cervical and lumbosacral motor spinal systems develop as a result of various long-term sports activities. Compared with nonathletes, ski racers and basketball players were found to have an extended representation area of upper- and lower-limb muscle α-motoneurons with a high reflex excitability. The area was extended by involving upper segments in all cases. Several indices of functional plasticity of the cervical and lumbar regions of the spinal cord in ski racers, who are engaged in moderate cyclic activity, were higher than in basketball players, whose movements are more various.     

Orofacial injuries reported by junior and senior basketball players

The increased popularity of sports, apart from being beneficial to health, also results in a larger number of injuries, a part of which are also injuries to the stomatognatic system. According to the data from literature orofacial injuries in basketball are frequent, but relatively minor. The World Dental Federation places basketball into the category of medium-risk sports for the occurrence of injuries to the stomatognatic system. The purpose of this investigation was to determine incidence, type and severity of orofacial injuries during basketball and the frequent of the mouthguard use in a selected sample of basketball players from the City of Zagreb and the Zagreb County. The sample consists of 195 athletes who actively participate in basketball, 61 junior and 134 senior players. A total of 2 615 injuries to the stomatognatic system were documented in this research, 529 (20.2%) of those refer to juniors and 2 086 (79.8%) to seniors. The most common injuries are lacerations and contusions of soft tissue 84.4% (21.5% juniors and 78.5% seniors), followed by temporomandibular joint injuries and oral muscles stiffness 13.4% (14.9% juniors and 85.1% seniors) and 2.2% dental injuries (3.5% juniors and 96.5% seniors). Only 6.7% of players (13 players--2 juniors and 11 seniors) have tried to wear a mouthguard, while only one 1% of them (2 players--one junior and one senior) frequently used it. Total number of injuries shows that sports injuries are common during basketball. Average number of almost 4 injuries per player is relatively high. Dental injuries and temporomandibular joint injuries and oral muscles stiffness are relatively rare, only 16%. Lacerations and contusions of soft tissues represent 84% of all injuries and that minor injuries do not require professional care.     

Physique and Performance of Young Wheelchair Basketball Players in Relation with Classification

The relationships among physical characteristics, performance, and functional ability classification of younger wheelchair basketball players have been barely investigated to date. The purpose of this work was to assess anthropometry, body composition, and performance in sport-specific field tests in a national sample of Italian younger wheelchair basketball players as well as to evaluate the association of these variables with the players’ functional ability classification and game-related statistics. Several anthropometric measurements were obtained for 52 out of 91 eligible players nationwide. Performance was assessed in seven sport-specific field tests (5m sprint, 20m sprint with ball, suicide, maximal pass, pass for accuracy, spot shot and lay-ups) and game-related statistics (free-throw points scored per match, two- and three-point field-goals scored per match, and their sum). Association between variables, and predictivity was assessed by correlation and regression analysis, respectively. Players were grouped into four Classes of increasing functional ability (A-D). One-way ANOVA with Bonferroni’s correction for multiple comparisons was used to assess differences between Classes. Sitting height and functional ability Class especially correlated with performance outcomes, but wheelchair basketball experience and skinfolds did not. Game-related statistics and sport-specific field-test scores all showed significant correlation with each other. Upper arm circumference and/or maximal pass and lay-ups test scores were able to explain 42 to 59% of variance in game-related statistics (P<0.001). A clear difference in performance was only found for functional ability Class A and D. Conclusion: In younger wheelchair basketball players, sitting height positively contributes to performance. The maximal pass and lay-ups test should be carefully considered in younger wheelchair basketball training plans. Functional ability Class reflects to a limited extent the actual differences in performance.