海马成年后神经发生的研究进展

动物在成年后,中枢神经系统内仍有神经发生(neurogenesis),目前认为海马在成年后的神经发生参与记忆的形成。另外,成年海马的神经发生受生理与病理因素的调控。本文就近年来成年海马神经发生的调控与学习和记忆的相关性进行综述。     

健康和脑损伤下小胶质细胞在成年海马神经发生中的调节作用

成年脑内终生存在持续性神经发生,该过程受多种内外因素的调节.小胶质细胞是脑内固有的免疫细胞,在维持脑稳态和脑的免疫调节方面起着重要作用.越来越多的研究显示,小胶质细胞通过吞噬作用清除细胞碎片,并通过与神经元的直接接触和/或释放可溶性因子影响成年海马神经发生.本文综述了在生理状态下,小胶质细胞如何调控成年海马神经干/祖细胞及新生神经元的不同阶段,进而调节神经发生.此外,本文还综述了在脑损伤条件下,海马神经发生和小胶质细胞形态功能的变化,以及如何通过干预小胶质细胞影响海马神经发生,为应用小胶质细胞促进脑的内源性修复提供理论依据.     

自主跑轮运动上调成年小鼠海马齿状回区细胞增殖及BDNF、IGF1和WNT4的表达水平

成年海马神经发生在调控学习记忆和情感过程中有重要作用。外界刺激因素,如自主运动能影响成年海马神经发生过程。自主运动能显著增强海马齿状回区的细胞增殖,并使新生神经元增多,但其具体机制仍不是十分清楚。本研究采用跑轮实验这种啮齿动物自主运动模型,使两月龄的C57BL/6成年小鼠跑轮15天后,用BrdU掺入实验观察海马齿状回区的细胞增殖情况。采用逆转录实时荧光定量PCR法(RT-qPCR)和蛋白免疫印迹法(Western blot)检测海马齿状回区、阿蒙角区和皮层区成年神经发生相关因子的mRNA和蛋白表达水平。结果显示,自主跑轮运动15天后的成年小鼠海马齿状回区增殖细胞数目显著上调;齿状回区Bdnf、Igf1的mRNA和蛋白表达水平显著升高,Wnt4的mRNA表达水平显著升高,提示15天自主运动可能通过特异地增加海马齿状回区BDNF、IGF1和WNT4的表达产生上调成年海马神经发生的作用。     

慢性复合应激对成年海马FGF-2的表达及神经发生的影响

目的通过观察慢性复合应激后大鼠海马FGF-2表达的变化,来探讨慢性复合应激对FGF-2表达的影响及其与海马神经发生的联系。方法成年雄性大鼠随机分为复合应激组和正常对照组。复合应激组动物每天交替无规律暴露于复合应激原中达6周。然后运用免疫组织化学方法、Western-blot和RT-PCR技术观察海马FGF-2表达的变化。结果慢性复合应激组动物海马FGF-2阳性细胞的表达量增多(P<0.05);海马FGF-2蛋白的表达明显增加(P<0.05);海马FGF-2 mRNA水平明显上调(P<0.05)。结论慢性复合应激可引起海马FGF-2阳性细胞表达量增加和FGF-2表达水平升高,提示应激后内源性FGF-2的表达增高可能是慢性复合应激促海马神经发生的因素之一。     

星形胶质细胞诱导成年神经干细胞的神经发生

在中枢神经系统 ,成年后新神经元发生主要见于两个脑区 ,即室管下区 (ｓｕｂｖｅｎｔｒｉｃｕｌａｒｚｏｎｅ)与海马的颗粒下区 (ｓｕｂｇｒａｎｕｌａｒｚｏｎｅ)。正常情况下 ,除上述脑区外的其它脑区能够产生神经胶质细胞 ,但是不能产生神经元。为了研究神经元和 /或神经胶质细胞对来源于成年的神经干细胞分化的影响 ,Ｓｏｎｇ等分离了成年大鼠海马的神经元和星形胶质细胞 ,将其分别或联合与来自成年的、依赖ＦＧＦ 2的神经干细胞共培养 ,意外地发现神经元促进神经干细胞分化为少突胶质细胞 ,而星形胶质细胞则促进神经干细胞分化为神经…     

Sox基因家族对成年神经发生的 转录调控作用

成年神经发生是脑内一个复杂而高度调控的重要生物学过程,维持了脑内可塑性和相关功能。近年来,成年神经发生受内在因素和外在因素的影响。其中,内在因素中的转录因子参与基因转录,协调成年神经发生过程中遗传程序的表达。Sox基因家族编码的Sox蛋白作为重要的转录调控因子对成年神经发生起着重要的转录调控作用。因此,本文就Sox基因家族中参与成年神经发生的关键因子展开综述,为人们理解成年脑内神经发生的分子调控机制提供新的见解。     

VEGF调控抑郁症海马神经发生的研究进展

抑郁症是一种发生率高、易复发、危害大的精神障碍,其主要临床表现是持续的情绪低落和认知功能障碍.近年来其发病率越来越高,已经引起了人们广泛关注,由于其发病机制比较复杂,目前尚未完全阐明.神经营养假说认为,神经营养因子具有维持神经元生存、促进突触生长的作用,倘若前额叶、海马等脑区神经营养因子缺乏,可抑制相应脑功能从而最终导致抑郁;故抗抑郁药物治疗抑郁的途径是增加脑中的神经营养因子含量、提高突触可塑性和促进神经元生存.总之神经营养因子表达水平下降参与了抑郁症的病理生理过程.在众多神经营养因子中,VEGF是一种多功能的因子,能够通过多种途径促进血管生成,保护缺血和退变的神经元,引发成年大脑神经元再生,从而影响抑郁.而研究表明,成年海马神经发生与正在进行的血管生成是有着密切的联系.本文主要对VEGF在海马神经发生的作用机制及其调控对抑郁症的影响进行阐述.发现VEGF在调节海马神经发生具有重要的作用,并且VEGF及其下游信号参与了抑郁症的发生发展过程.     

抗抑郁治疗与海马神经发生

抑郁模型动物普遍存在海马神经发生缺隐,许多抗抑郁措施可提高海马神经发生,提示海马神经发生和抑郁症之间的密切联系,其机制可能涉及激素、神经递质、受体、神经营养因子、信号转导通路以及神经胶质细胞的功能等。研究海马神经发生有助于探讨抑郁症的发病机制,以便从新的角度研发抗抑郁药物。     

新型雌激素受体ER-α36在新生与成年大鼠海马和皮层中表达的比较北大核心CSCD

ER-α36是一种新型雌激素受体亚型,广泛分布于乳腺、子宫、消化道、呼吸道等组织和细胞中。本文旨在研究ER-α36在中枢神经系统中的表达和分布情况。采用免疫细胞/组织化学方法和蛋白质免疫印迹杂交比较ER-α36在新生(1日龄)与成年(12周龄)Sprague-Dawley(SD)大鼠海马及皮层区的表达和分布情况。研究显示,ER-α36在成年大鼠海马及皮层区均有表达,主要分布于锥体神经元。ER-α36在新生大鼠海马和皮层神经元中均定位于细胞膜。新生大鼠皮层神经元ER-α36蛋白表达高于海马,而成年大鼠皮层神经元ER-α36蛋白表达低于海马。与新生大鼠相比较,成年大鼠海马和皮层神经元ER-α36表达均显著提高。以上结果提示,ER-α36参与介导神经元膜雌激素信号通路的调节,且在大鼠出生后海马及皮层发育中发挥着重要作用。因此,ER-α36可能为学习记忆、神经系统退行性疾病等的防治提供潜在的药物靶点。     

成年海马神经发生障碍在糖尿病脑病发生和发展中的作用

糖尿病脑病(diabetic encephalopathy, DE)是糖尿病的常见并发症之一。持续的高血糖可引起机体慢性炎症、血脑屏障通透性增加、神经发生障碍和脑萎缩等形态和功能的改变,从而导致认知功能下降。海马齿状回(dentate gyrus, DG)是机体调节学习记忆功能的重要区域,也是哺乳动物成年神经发生的重要脑区之一。最新研究表明,成年海马神经发生(adult hippocampal neurogenesis, AHN)在整个生命进程中持续存在,随着年龄的增长而降低,但在DE中受损明显。DE中AHN障碍引起认知功能损伤的机制日益受到关注。本文就近年来AHN障碍在DE发生、发展中的作用及机制的研究进展进行综述,以期为DE的防治提供新的思路。     

Life-Long Hippocampal Neurogenesis: Environmental,Pharmacological and Neurochemical Modulations

It is now well documented that active neurogenesis does exist throughout the life span in the brain of various species including human. Two discrete brain regions contain progenitor cells that are capable of differentiating into neurons or glia, the subventricular zone and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation. Recent studies have shown that neurogenesis can be modulated by a variety of factors, including stress and neurohormones, growth factors, neurotransmitters, drugs of abuse, and also strokes and traumatic brain injuries. In particular, the hippocampal neurogenesis may play a role in neuroadaptation associated with pathologies, such as cognitive disorders and depression. The increased neurogenesis at sites of injury may represent an attempt by the central nervous system to regenerate after damage. We herein review the most significant data on hippocampal neurogenesis in brain under various pathological conditions, with a special attention to mood disorders including depression and addiction. Special issue dedicated to Dr. Moussa Youdim.     

Adult hippocampal neurogenesis in aging and Alzheimer's disease

Adult neurogenesis occurs in the subgranular zone of the hippocampal dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles. This process is highly regulated by intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which may control the proliferation and/or maturation of neural progenitor cells. Adult-born neurons are integrated in preexisting networks and may have functional implications for adult brain. Here we attempt to summarize relevant findings concerning the physiological role of adult neurogenesis mainly focused on the subgranular zone, and to discuss the reduced neurogenesis observed during aging and the factors that have been involved in this phenomenon. Finally, we focus on hippocampal neurogenesis in Alzheimer's disease, reviewing animal models of the disease used for the study of this process and the conclusions that have been drawn in this context.     

Stress,hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition: functional correlations

The brain of many species including humans, harbors stem cells that continue to generate new neurons up into adulthood. This form of structural plasticity occurs in a limited number of brain regions, i.e. the subventricular zone and the hippocampal dentate gyrus and is regulated by environmental and hormonal factors. In this minireview, we provide an overview of the effects of stress and glucocorticoid hormones on adult hippocampal neurogenesis and discuss how these effects may be relevant for cognitive function and possibly, brain disease. While its exact functional role remains elusive, adult neurogenesis has been implicated in learning and memory, fear and mood regulation and recently, adult-born neurons were found to be involved in specific cognitive functions such as pattern separation (i.e. the ability to form unique memory representations) and cognitive flexibility. The process of adult neurogenesis is influenced by several factors; whereas e.g. exercise stimulates, exposure to stress and stress hormones generally inhibit neurogenesis. Effects of acute, mild stress are generally short-lasting and recover quickly, but chronic or severe forms of stress can induce lasting reductions in adult neurogenesis. Some of the inhibitory effects of stress can be rescued by exercise, by allowing a period of recovery from stress, by drugs that target the stress system, or by some, but not all, antidepressants. Stress may, partly through its effects on adult neurogenesis, alter structure and plasticity of the hippocampal circuit. This can lead to subsequent changes in stress responsivity and aspects of memory processing, which may be particularly relevant for stress related psychopathology or brain diseases that involve perturbed memory processing.     

Neurogenesis and aging: FGF-2 and HB-EGF restore neurogenesis in hippocampus and subventricular zone of aged mice

Neurogenesis, which may contribute to the ability of the adult brain to function normally and adapt to disease, nevertheless declines with advancing age. Adult neurogenesis can be enhanced by administration of growth factors, but whether the aged brain remains responsive to these factors is unknown. We compared the effects of intracerebroventricular fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-2 and heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor (HB-EGF) on neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate subgranular zone (SGZ) and the subventricular zone (SVZ) of young adult (3-month) and aged (20-month) mice. Neurogenesis, measured by labelling with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and by expression of doublecortin, was reduced by approximately 90% in SGZ and by approximately 50% in SVZ of aged mice. HB-EGF increased BrdU labelling in SGZ at 3 months by approximately 60% and at 20 months by approximately 450%, which increased the number of BrdU-labelled cells in SGZ of aged mice to approximately 25% of that in young adults. FGF-2 also stimulated BrdU labelling in SGZ, by approximately 25% at 3 months and by approximately 250% at 20 months, increasing the number of newborn neurones in older mice to approximately 20% of that in younger mice. In SVZ, HB-EGF and FGF-2 increased BrdU incorporation by approximately 140% at 3 months and approximately 170% at 20 months, so the number of BrdU-labelled cells was comparable in untreated 3-month-old and growth factor-treated 20-month-old mice. These results demonstrate that the aged brain retains the capacity to respond to exogenous growth factors with increased neurogenesis, which may have implications for the therapeutic potential of neurogenesis enhancement in age-associated neurological disorders.     

Olfactory bulb neurogenesis and its neurological impact

Contrary to the long-held dogma according to which the adult mammalian brain does not produce neurons anymore, neuronal turnover has been reported in two discrete areas of the adult brain: the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb. Adult-generated neurons are produced from neural stem cells located in the hippocampal subgranular zone and the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles. Recently, number of genetic and epigenetic factors that modulate proliferation of stem cells, migration, differentiation and survival of newborn neurons have been characterized. We know that neurogenesis increases in the diseased brain, after stroke or after traumatic brain injury. Importantly, progenitors from the subventricular zone, but not from the subgranular zone, are incorporated at the sites of injury, where they replace some of the degenerated neurons. Thus, the central nervous system has the capacity to regenerate itself after injury and, today, researchers develop strategies aimed at promoting neurogenesis in diseased areas. This basic research is attracting a lot of attention because of the hope that it will lead to regeneration and reconstruction therapy for the damaged brain. In this review, we discuss major findings concerning the organization of the neurogenic niche located in the subventricular zone and examine both intrinsic and extrinsic factors that regulate adult neurogenesis. Then, we present evidences for the intrinsic capability of the adult brain for cell replacement, and shed light on recent works demonstrating that one can greatly enhance appropriate brain cell replacement by using molecular cues known to endogenously control proliferation, migration, differentiation and/or survival of subventricular zone progenitors. Finally, we review some of the advantages and limits of strategies aimed at using endogenous progenitors and their relevance to human clinics.     

Brain ischemia, neurogenesis, and neurotrophic receptor expression in primates

Generation of new neurons persists in the normal adult mammalian brain, with neural stem/progenitor cells residing in at least two brain regions: the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricle and the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus (DG). Adult neurogenesis is well documented in the rodent, and has also been demonstrated in vivo in nonhuman primates and humans. Brain injuries such as ischemia affect neurogenesis in adult rodents as both global and focal ischemic insults enhance the proliferation of progenitor cells residing in SGZ or SVZ. We addressed the issue whether an injury triggered activation of endogenous neuronal precursors also takes place in the adult primate brain. We found that the ischemic insult increased the number of progenitor cells in monkey SGZ and SVZ, and caused gliogenesis in the ischemia-prone hippocampal CA1 sector. To better understand the mechanisms regulating precursor cell division and differentiation in the primate, we analyzed the expression at protein level of a panel of potential regulatory molecules, including neurotrophic factors and their receptors. We found that a fraction of mitotic progenitors were positive for the neurotrophin receptor TrkB, while immature neurons expressed the neurotrophin receptor TrkA. Astroglia, ependymal cells and blood vessels in SVZ were positive for distinctive sets of ligands/receptors, which we characterized. Thus, a network of neurotrophic signals operating in an autocrine or paracrine manner may regulate neurogenesis in adult primate SVZ. We also analyzed microglial and astroglial proliferation in postischemic hippocampal CA1 sector. We found that proliferating postischemic microglia in adult monkey CA1 sector express the neurotrophin receptor TrkA, while activated astrocytes were labeled for nerve growth factor (NGF), ligand for TrkA, and the tyrosine kinase TrkB, a receptor for brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). These results implicate NGF and BDNF as regulators of postischemic glial proliferation in adult primate hippocampus.     

Akhirin regulates the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells/progenitor cells at neurogenic niches in mouse brain

Specialized microenvironment, or neurogenic niche, in embryonic and postnatal mouse brain plays critical roles during neurogenesis throughout adulthood. The subventricular zone (SVZ) and the dentate gyrus (DG) of hippocampus in the mouse brain are two major neurogenic niches where neurogenesis is directed by numerous regulatory factors. Now, we report Akhirin (AKH), a stem cell maintenance factor in mouse spinal cord, plays a pivotal regulatory role in the SVZ and in the DG. AKH showed specific distribution during development in embryonic and postnatal neurogenic niches. Loss of AKH led to abnormal development of the ventricular zone and the DG along with reduction of cellular proliferation in both regions. In AKH knockout mice (AKH^−/−), quiescent neural stem cells (NSCs) increased, while proliferative NSCs or neural progenitor cells decreased at both neurogenic niches. In vitro NSC culture assay showed increased number of neurospheres and reduced neurogenesis in AKH^−/−. These results indicate that AKH, at the neurogenic niche, exerts dynamic regulatory role on NSC self-renewal, proliferation and differentiation during SVZ and hippocampal neurogenesis.     

AT1 receptor antagonism does not influence early radiation-induced changes in microglial activation or neurogenesis in the normal rat brain

Blockers of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) ameliorate cognitive deficits and some aspects of brain injury after whole-brain irradiation. We investigated whether treatment with the angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonist L-158,809 at a dose that protects cognitive function after fractionated whole-brain irradiation reduced radiation-induced neuroinflammation and changes in hippocampal neurogenesis, well-characterized effects that are associated with radiation-induced brain injury. Male F344 rats received L-158,809 before, during and after a single 10-Gy dose of radiation. Expression of cytokines, angiotensin II receptors and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 was evaluated by real-time PCR 24 h, 1 week and 12 weeks after irradiation. At the latter times, microglial density and proliferating and activated microglia were analyzed in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Cell proliferation and neurogenesis were also quantified in the dentate subgranular zone. L-158,809 treatment modestly increased mRNA expression for Ang II receptors and TNF-α but had no effect on radiation-induced effects on hippocampal microglia or neurogenesis. Thus, although L-158,809 ameliorates cognitive deficits after whole-brain irradiation, the drug did not mitigate the neuroinflammatory microglial response or rescue neurogenesis. Additional studies are required to elucidate other mechanisms of normal tissue injury that may be modulated by RAAS blockers.