SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE ISOKA DISTRICT OF THE NORTHERN PROVINCE OF NORTHERN RHODESIA

Dean, W. R. J. 1978. Moult seasons of some Anatidae in the western Transvaal. Ostrich 49:76-84.

Spurwinged Geese Plectropterus gambensis, Egyptian Geese Alopochen aegyptiacus, Yellow-billed Ducks Anas undulata, Redbilled Teal A. erythrorhyncha and Southern Pochard Netta erythrophthalma have a flightless moult mainly during the dry season, from April to August, in the western Transvaal. South African Shelduck Tadorna cana moult during October to February after breeding during July and August. The Cape Shoveller Anas smithii has two main flightless periods, April-May and October-January. Cape Teal A. capensis have been recorded in flightless moult in October, December and January.

The duration of the flightless period correlates with wing length; larger and longer winged Anatidae require proportionally more time for wing moult than do smaller and shorter winged Anatidae.

Geese and shelducks moult on large open lakes with an open shore. Ducks have been recorded flightless on lakes and dams, with or without emergent vegetation.     

Food constraints explain the restricted distribution of wintering Lesser White‐fronted Geese Anser erythropus in China

More than 90% of the Lesser White‐fronted Geese Anser erythropus in the Eastern Palearctic flyway population winter at East Dongting Lake, China. To explain this restricted distribution and to understand better the winter feeding ecology and habitat requirements of this poorly known species, we assessed their food availability, diet and energy budgets at this site through two winters. Lesser White‐fronted Geese maintained a positive energy budget when feeding on above‐ground green production of Eleocharis and Alopecurus in recessional grasslands in autumn and spring to accumulate fat stores. Such food was severely depleted by late November and showed no growth in mid‐winter. Geese fed on more extensive old‐growth Carex sedge meadows in mid‐winter where they were in energy deficit and depleted endogenous fat stores. Geese failed to accumulate autumn fat stores in one year when high water levels prevented the Geese from using recessional grassland feeding areas. Fat stores remained lower throughout that winter and Geese left for breeding areas later in spring than in the previous year, perhaps reflecting the need to gain threshold fat stores for migration. Sedge meadows are widespread at other Yangtze River floodplain wetlands, but recessional grasslands are rare and perhaps restricted to parts of East Dongting Lake, which would explain the highly localized distribution of Lesser White‐fronted Geese in China and their heavy use of these habitats at this site. Sympathetic management of water tables is essential to maintain the recessional grasslands in the best condition for Geese. Regular depletion of fat stores whilst grazing sedge meadows in mid‐winter also underlines the need to protect the species from unnecessary anthropogenic disturbances that enhance energy expenditure. The specialized diet of the Lesser White‐fronted Goose may explain its highly restricted winter distribution and global rarity.     

Time budgets of Snow Geese Chen caerulescens and Ross's Geese Chen rossii in mixed flocks: implications of body size, ambient temperature and family associations

Body size affects foraging and forage intake rates directly via energetic processes and indirectly through interactions with social status and social behaviour. Ambient temperature has a relatively greater effect on the energetics of smaller species, which also generally are more vulnerable to predator attacks than are larger species. We examined variability in an index of intake rates and an index of alertness in Lesser Snow Geese Chen caerulescens caerulescens and Ross's Geese Chen rossii wintering in southwest Louisiana. Specifically we examined variation in these response variables that could be attributed to species, age, family size and ambient temperature. We hypothesized that the smaller Ross's Geese would spend relatively more time feeding, exhibit relatively higher peck rates, spend more time alert or raise their heads up from feeding more frequently, and would respond to declining temperatures by increasing their proportion of time spent feeding. As predicted, we found that Ross's Geese spent more time feeding than did Snow Geese and had slightly higher peck rates than Snow Geese in one of two winters. Ross's Geese spent more time alert than did Snow Geese in one winter, but alert rates differed by family size, independent of species, in contrast to our prediction. In one winter, time spent foraging and walking was inversely related to average daily temperature, but both varied independently of species. Effects of age and family size on time budgets were generally independent of species and in accordance with previous studies. We conclude that body size is a key variable influencing time spent feeding in Ross's Geese, which may require a high time spent feeding at the expense of other activities.     

WATERFOWL (ANATIDAE) ON IRRIGATION LAKES IN THE ORANGE FREE STATE

Geldenhuys, J. N. 1975. Waterfowl (Anatidae) on irrigation lakes in the Orange Free State. Ostrich 46:219-235.

The incidence and population size of fifteen duck species were determined on nine irrigation lakes in the Orange Free State, South Africa, during August 1972 to July 1973. Allemanskraal supported the highest average number of Egyptian Goose, South African Shelduck and Yellowbilled Duck. Redbilled Teal and Spurwinged Goose favoured Bloemhof. Cape Shoveller and Cape Teal concentrated on Kalkfontein, and Southern Pochard frequented Erfenis. The most common species were the Egyptian Goose, South African Shelduck, Yellowbilled Duck and Spurwinged Goose, in thit order according to average number of birds per count, Black Duck, Whitefaced Duck, Whistling Duck, Whitebacked Duck, Hottentot Teal, Knobbilled Duck and Maccoa Duck occurred sporadically. Relatively high seasonal population nuctuations were found in the South African Shelduck, Cape Teal, Southern Pochard and to a lesser extent in the Spurwinged Goose and Cape Shoveller.     

Geese and Red-knobbed Coot on the Kafue Flats in Zambia, 1970–1974

The occurrence, chronology of breeding and wing-moult, and feeding habits of the Pigmy Goose Nettapus auritus, Knob-billed Goose Sarkidiornis melanotos, Spur-winged Goose Plectropterus gambensis, Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiaca and Red-knobbed Coot Fulica cristata on the Kafue Flats in Zambia are described based on observations made between October 1970 and January 1974 at Lochinvar National Park and, from the air, over the central section of the Flats. The Pigmy Goose, Knob-billed Goose, Egyptian Goose and Red-knobbed Coot fed largely by grazing. They were most abundant between March and June, occurring in greatest numbers at Lochinvar. Egyptian Geese occasionally nested on the flood-plain at Lochinvar between August and January, but there was no proof of the other species nesting there. Many Pigmy Geese and male Knob-billed Geese moulted on the lagoon at Lochinvar between March and June; small numbers of Egyptian Geese and Red-knobbed Coot also moulted in the Park, the former between February and May, the latter in June and July. The Spur-winged Goose fed mostly by grazing and grubbing. Numbers on the Flats were greatest between June and November when 60,000–90,000 moved downriver as the floods subsided. Many bred between January and March in the fringing zone and moulted on the floodplain between May and July. A hydroelectric scheme, completed in 1975, may benefit the Pigmy Goose and Red-knobbed Coot but harm the Spur-winged Goose.     

Diel behaviour and time budget of the adult pine weevil Hylobius abietis

The pine weevil [Hylobius abietis (L.); Coleoptera: Curculionidae] has a high economic impact on forest regeneration in Europe. The general biology of the pine weevil has received considerable attention, although there is insufficient knowledge about its diel behaviour and time budget. Therefore, in the present study, the feeding and locomotion behaviour of individual adult weevils on Norway spruce seedlings [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] is observed for 24‐h periods in the laboratory. Both girdled and nongirdled seedlings are used to assess how the behaviour of weevils is influenced by the physiological response of plants to the girdling. The locomotion pattern shows a distinct maximum during the beginning of the dark phase, whereas most feeding occurs during the second half of the dark phase and the first hours of the subsequent light phase. The girdling treatment increases the time that weevils spend on the seedlings during the first part of an observation session, although it has no effect on their feeding pattern. The time budgets of weevils on girdled and nongirdled seedlings are similar. On average, weevils spend 34% of their time in locomotion and 6% on feeding. Females spend more time feeding than males (7.1% versus 4.2%), possibly because they have higher food requirements (e.g. for egg production). Females also spend more time in total on the seedlings than males (26.3% versus 7.0%). The present study reveals, in high temporal resolution, the diel feeding and locomotion behaviour and time budget of male and female pine weevils.     

Sexual segregation in Tibetan gazelle: a test of the activity budget hypothesis

Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata , a threatened endemic species on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, is a sexually dimorphic ungulate. Males are larger than females and both sexes live in different groups, except during the rutting season. In order to test the activity budget hypothesis, which was proposed to explain social segregation in ungulates, we studied the activity budget of male and female Tibetan gazelles during the summers of 2005 and 2006. The activity budget hypothesis predicts that females spend more time feeding and group members synchronize their activities more in the same-sex groups than in the mixed-sex groups. We found that females and males of Tibetan gazelle had different activity budgets; females spent significantly longer time feeding and comparably less time on other activities. Activity synchronization indexes between female groups and male groups were similar (female groups: 0.81±0.17, male groups: 0.80±0.19), whereas both of them were significantly higher than that of mixed-sex groups (0.58±0.29). These results suggest that although sexual segregation might be caused by multiple mechanisms, the activity budget hypothesis about sexual segregation is supported by our studies of Tibetan gazelle on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.     

Time Budget and Activity Patterns of Oncilla Cats (Leopardus tigrinus) in Captivity

Researchers have reported on the diet of Leopardus tigrinus and ecological aspects, but studies of behavior are scarce. The aims of this study were to describe the time budget and activity patterns of 10 captive Leopardus tigrinus individuals. The group had an activity budget of 66% resting, 20.66% moving, 6.08% vigilant, 3.12% feeding, and 4.14% other activities during 720 hr of observations. The activity budgets of the males and females did not differ significantly; however, males ate more than did females. The nonhuman animals spent more time resting during the day than during the night. Moving, socializing, maintenance, and vigilance showed statistically higher mean values at night. Group analysis of the temporal pattern of behavior showed bimodal peaks. Activity levels were high from 5 a.m. to 6 a.m. and decreased through the day only to peak again at 7 p.m. Stereotypic pacing peaked at dawn and at dusk. Patterns of vigilance, feeding, and maintenance were also determined for the group during a 24-hr period. These results may be useful for the development of management plans and effective conservation strategies for captive cats.     

内蒙古达赉湖地区蒙原羚繁殖期及其前后昼间行为时间分配及能量平衡策略

2007年11月、12月和2008年3月,在内蒙古达赉湖地区,采用扫描取样法对雌雄蒙原羚繁殖期及其前后昼间行为时间分配进行了研究。 研究表明：（1）繁殖期前、繁殖期和繁殖期后,雌性蒙原羚采食时间,占昼间活动时间的比例分别为（44.9±3.8）%、（43.5±4.0）% 和 (46.2±3.1)%;卧息时间,占昼间活动时间的比例分别 为（32.3±4.8）%、（29.2±2.9）% 和 (28.0±4.8)%;雌性蒙原羚在繁殖期及其前后采食、移动和卧息的行为时间分配差异不显著（P>0.05）,站立、繁殖、“其他”行为时间分配差异性显著（P<0.05）。（2）繁殖期前、繁殖期和繁殖期后, 雄性蒙原羚采食时间,占昼间活动时间的比例分别为 (52.6±3.8)%、(17.5±2.8)% 和 (29.8±4.8)%;卧息时间,占昼间活动时间的比例分别为 (13.4±6.4)%、(24.2±4.1)% 和 (44.2±4.7)%。雄性蒙原羚在繁殖期及其前后采食、卧息、站立、移动、繁殖、“其他”时间分配均有显著差异（P<0.05）。动物采食卧息的行为时间分配反映动物的能量平衡策略。雌性蒙原羚的时间分配表明,雌性蒙原羚的能量平衡策略在繁殖期前、繁殖期和繁殖期后没有发生显著变化,均为能量摄入最优化策略,尽可能多的时间分配在采食上;雄性蒙原羚的时间分配表明,在繁殖期前,其能量平衡策略为能量摄入最优化策略,尽可能多的时间分配在采食上;雄性蒙原羚繁殖期及繁殖期后其能量平衡策略转变为能量支出优化策略,尽可能少的支出能量,尽可能多的时间分配在卧息上。     

4. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE VAN RYNEVELD'S PASS IRRIGATION LAKE,GRAAFF-REINET

McLachlan, A., Woodridge, T., Schramm, M. &; Kühn, M. 1980. Seasonal abundance, biomass and feeding of shore birds on sandy beaches in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Ostrich 51:44-52.

The numbers of birds on three Eastern Cape sandy beaches were monitored monthly over one year during 1977/78. Dominant among 17 species were the Southern Blackbacked Gull Larus dominicanus, Black Oystercatcher Haematopus moquini, Whitefronted Sandplover Charadrius marginatus and Sanderling Calidris alba. These four species made up 95% of bird numbers and their respective biomass values were 78 652, 7 695, 578 and 3 116 kJ/km shoreline. Total food consumption for these species, calculated on the basis of estimated standard metabolic rates, was 4 159 394, 521 149, 76 768 and 363 053 kJ/km respectively. Food composition and feeding behaviour are also discussed and the total quantity of intertidal macrobenthic animals consumed by birds estimated.     

The ecology of dippers Cinclus cinclus (L.) in relation to stream acidity in upland Wales: time-activity budgets and energy expenditure

Summary The time-activity budget and energy expenditure of a riverine bird, the dipper Cinclus cinclus, was studied from March 1988 to July 1989, across a range of streams of contrasting acidity in upland Wales. Differences in time-activity budgets of birds on acidic and circumneutral streams were consistent with documented differences in prey availability and diet. Birds spent a significantly greater proportion of their active day foraging, swimming and flying, and less time resting, on acidic streams. Activity measurements varied significantly through the year, through the day, and with river flow. Despite differences in time budgets, mean Daily Energy Expenditure (DEE) on acidic streams was only 4.5–7.0% greater than on circumneutral streams. However, rates of energy gain were greater for dippers on circumneutral streams for every month of the year, a pattern confirmed by differences in body condition. By spending more time feeding, dippers on acidic streams will have less time for other activities such as self-maintenance and predator surveillance; they may also be less able to meet the additional demands accompanying the initiation of breeding. These findings are discussed in relation to the feeding ecology and breeding performance of dippers on streams of contrasting water quality in upland Wales.     

Perceptions towards Egyptian Geese at the Steenberg Golf Estate,Cape Town,South Africa

The number of Egyptian Geese Alopochen aegyptiaca has increased in the Western Cape province, South Africa, during the past few decades and they are allegedly perceived as a problem on golf courses. However, attitudes towards the geese on golf courses in the province have not been empirically assessed. We surveyed the residents and members of the Steenberg Golf Estate, Cape Town, during April 2012 to evaluate perceptions towards Egyptian Geese on the estate. A standardised, anonymous questionnaire was sent to 548 estate residents and non-resident golfing members. Of the 112 respondents, the majority (92, or 84%) considered that geese are a problem on the estate. The ranking of the perceived problem was: 16 (15%) minimal problem, 34 (33%) moderate problem and 54 (52%) severe problem. The majority also considered that the goose population should be reduced by 50% or more (90, or 86% of all respondents). Dealing with Egyptian Geese numbers and activities on golf courses is complex. The option of designing golf courses and adjacent vegetation so that they are attractive to local bird species, while simultaneously being less attractive to Egyptian Geese, is available.     

Time energy budgets and food use of Atlantic brant across their wintering range

We conducted extensive behavioral and food sampling of Atlantic brant (Branta bernicla hrota) across their winter range and used time–activity budgets for brant to determine daily energy expenditure (DEE). Sampling occurred 1 December–31 May 2006–2008 in 11,225-km² sites between Rhode Island and Virginia containing important estuarine and upland habitat. To calculate DEE we used instantaneous scan sampling to estimate time–activity budgets. We also determined foods eaten by brant and energy density of food plants. Last, we quantified body condition of brant, which differed among years, months, regions, and ages, and sexes. Overall DEE for brant was 1,530 ± 64 kJ/day. There was considerable variation in time–activity budgets among years, months, regions, habitat, tide, temperature, and time-of-day, but we detected no significant difference in DEE of brant between years or among regions. However, DEE in January (2,018 ± 173 kJ/day) was nearly double the DEE of brant in May (1,048 ± 137 kJ/day). Brant spent their time feeding (32.3%), swimming (26.2%), resting (16.2%), and flying (14.5%). The percent of brant foreguts sampled contained macroalgae (53%) eelgrass (Zostera marina; 18%), salt marsh cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora; 17%), and terrestrial grass (Poa. sp.) and clover (Trifollium sp.; 9%). Energy density differed by vegetation type: macroalgae (12.6 ± 0.1 kJ/g), eelgrass (14.1 ± 0.1 kJ/g), new-growth salt marsh cordgrass (16.9 ± 0.2 kJ/g), and terrestrial grass and clover (17.7 ± 0.1 kJ/g). Atlantic brant exhibited behavioral plasticity thereby allowing modification of daily activity budgets to meet seasonally varying energetic requirements associated with wintering and spring staging. Recognizing a variable DEE can be used along with eventual estimates of food biomass and total metabolizable energy on the landscape to calculate carrying capacity (goose use days) on state, region, or range-wide scales. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Activity patterns of a troop of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata yakui) on Yakushima Island,Japan

Activity patterns of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) were observed for 240 hr from August to December 1976 on the western slope of Mt. Kuniwari, Yakushima Island, Japan. Activity patterns and the time budget of a habituated wild troop which consisted of 47 animals in August 1976, were studied quantitatively by using the scan-sampling method at 15-min intervals. Six thousand seven hundred and six animals were recorded in 959 scans during the study period and the mean number of animals seen per scan was 7.0. The time budget established for different categories of activity was as follows: inactive—20.9%; moving—22.8%; feeding—23.5%; social grooming—27.9%; self-grooming—1.2%; and other activities—3.7%. Adult males spent less time in feeding and more time in resting or being inactive than females or juveniles. The daily activity patterns were highly variable with respect to time. Intraspecific variations were examined between troops in several regions of Japan and it was noted that the percentages of time devoted to feeding were similar in all areas. Inter-species variations in the activity budgets of several species of primates were also examined. The percentage of time spent in social grooming by Japanese monkeys is exceptionally high compared to that recorded in other species.     

Moult in the Reed Bunting—A Preliminary Analysis

We studied disturbance factors that caused Brent Geese along a stretch of the north Norfolk coast to take flight. Patterns of activity and undisturbed flight were also quantified, to derive energy budgets. The most frequent source of disturbance was pedestrians. Those disturbances resulting in greatest energy expenditure were also of human origin, but tended to be ‘mechanised’ (e.g. aircraft, gunfire). Activity budgets for high- and low-disturbance days were compared, which showed that birds feed less and are more vigilant when disturbance is greater. On grass pastures, 68.9% of flight was a response to disturbance, which increased estimated hourly energy expenditure (HEE) from 32.2 to 35.6 J/h (10.8%). On exceptionally disturbed days, HEE increased to more than 44.0 J/h. As a consequence of disturbance, geese may need to feed at night for up to an hour in mid-winter, to balance their daily energy budget. Unless they are able to feed easily at night, disturbance may be one of the primary factors influencing local distribution of Brent Geese. Management implications are discussed.     

4. ONE YEAR'S CENSUS AND STUDY OF BIRDS IN 2½ ACRES OF ALEANY BUSHVELD. (Part 2.) April, 1945, to March, 1946

Hooded Vultures Necrosyrtes monachus are critically endangered but little is known of their year-round use of nests or whether other species usurp Hooded Vulture nest sites. We investigated visitation rates by Hooded Vultures and other species (including potential nest predators and usurpers) to examine their effect on Hooded Vulture breeding success. We present observations of 33 species recorded by camera traps at 12 Hooded Vulture nests over a total of 93 nest-months (2 095 nest-days). Several pairs of Hooded Vultures visited their nests regularly during the non-breeding season, some adding nesting material, highlighting that pairs visited their nest(s) year round. Egyptian Geese Alopochen aegyptiaca, potential usurpers of raptor nests, were present at occupied and unoccupied Hooded Vulture nests, but we recorded no usurpation of nests by Egyptian Geese and they had no impact on vulture breeding success. Hooded Vulture breeding failure was linked to two species only: camera-trap imagery recorded one case of predation of a vulture egg by a Chacma Baboon Papio ursinus, and one case of a Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus predating a vulture nestling. We recommend expanding the Hooded Vulture nest monitoring programme to include more pairs.     

The influence of temperature,sex and chela size in the foraging strategy of the shore crab,Carcinus maenas (L.)

Foraging rate was highly variable among shore crabs of the same size category and for individual crabs from day to day. Possible physiological reasons for this variability are discussed. Shore crab foraging rate, both in terms of mussels eaten per day and energy intake per day, was estimated to be higher at 17°C than at 10°C. The shape of diet curves and their mode for male shore crabs at 17°C closely resembled those for 10°C, indicating that the temperature increase had no effect on their previously demonstrated optimal foraging strategy.

Female and certain male shore crabs showed a preference for prey smaller than for other equivalent sized males. These suboptimally feeding male and female crabs attained a relatively higher prédation rate (mussels day^‐1), although their energy intake (KJ day^‐1) remained lower than that of optimally feeding males. Preferred mussel size, number of mussels eaten per day and energy intake were strongly related to master chela height. The diet curves for female and suboptimally feeding male shore crabs could be explained by these crabs’ proportionately smaller master chelae.     

Test of the activity budget hypothesis on Asiatic ibex in Tian Shan Mountains of Xinjiang,China

Asiatic ibex (Capra sibirica) is a threatened species in China and is distributed in the mountains of Central Asia. It is a sexually dimorphic ungulate. The males are much larger than females, and except for the breeding season, both sexes live in separate groups. Many hypotheses have been developed to explain the sexual segregation in sexually dimorphic ungulates. These hypotheses are not mutually exclusive, and in recent years, the activity budget hypothesis has received special attention. To test this hypothesis, we studied the activity budget of Asiatic ibex in the autumn of 2005. According to the activity budget hypothesis, females should spend more time feeding than the males, and the degree of activity synchronization should be higher in same-sex groups than in mixed-sex groups. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis. Both sexes of the Asiatic ibex spent most of the time feeding, and females spent a significantly longer time feeding than males, and males spent a significantly longer time standing. Activity synchronization indexes of both the female groups and males groups were significantly higher than mixed-sex groups. These results indicated that in Asiatic ibex, the activity budget hypothesis about sexual segregation is supported.     

Adaptive significance of winter pair bond in male pintail, Anas acuta

To test the female-advantage hypothesis that has been proposed to explain the adaptive significance of winter pair bonds in ducks, we examined the feeding and social behaviors of the northern pintail, Anas acuta. The female-advantage hypothesis assumes that male attendance offers paired females the benefits of increased social status and access to food, as well as less harassment from conspecifics, allowing them to spend more time feeding. Paired females dominated unpaired females, but neither time budgets of feeding nor frequency of feeding was significantly different between unpaired and paired females. The female-advantage hypothesis predicts that paired males spend less time feeding because they must closely guard their partners from harassment by male conspecifics. Paired males defended their mates by chasing and pecking the unpaired males. However, both time budgets of feeding and frequency of feeding were significantly higher in paired males than in unpaired males. Unpaired males frequently approached females while swimming. They performed courtship displays, mostly toward unpaired females. Paired males spent more time feeding by saving time and energy in courtship. We consider that the advantage of winter pairing for males comes from having a mate plus having an increase in feeding frequency. Received: February 20, 2000 / Accepted: May 22, 2000     

Foraging behaviour and diet of an ectothermic herbivore: Testudo horsfieldi

Herbivorous vertebrates of arid regions are frequently faced with inadequate food quality, quantity or both. The time and energy devoted to foraging is vital to balancing their energy budgets. For desert ectotherms, a low metabolism should be advantageous, reducing their total energy requirement, but extreme ambient temperatures can strongly constrain these animals' activity periods. We provide the first data on the activity budgets, foraging behaviour and diet of a highly abundant, desert-dwelling, herbivorous ectotherm, the steppe tortoise Testudo horsfieldi . Extreme climatic conditions of Central Asia limit steppe tortoise's activity to only three months per year. They remain inactive most of their "active season" (90%), and spend very little time foraging (<15 min per day). This suggests that steppe tortoises can satisfy their energy requirements with modest feeding efforts. Interestingly, steppe tortoises avoid feeding on grass species and feed mostly on plant species that are usually highly toxic to mammals. This result suggests that steppe tortoises and ungulates do not compete for food.