4. GAME RESERVES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Steyn, P. &; Grobler, J. H. 1981. Breeding biology of the Booted Eagle in South Africa. Ostrich 52:108-118.

The Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus is a breeding visitor to the Cape Province of South Africa, wintering mostly in Namibia on present knowledge. Palaearctic birds probably also reach the Cape but arrive later. Two nests in different localities in the Cape were studied. The birds breed soon after arrival. Both sexes build the nest on a cliff ledge. Incubation, which lasts 40 days, is done mostly by the female. The female spends most of her time on the nest during the first four weeks of the nestling period, but considerably less time thereafter. The male provides nearly all the prey until near the end of the nestling period, and helps to feed the young. Details of nestling growth and behaviour and of parental care are given. The nestling period was 50 and 54 days in two cases. Post-nestling dependence is about two months. Prey preferences in the two study areas were very similar: 54% birds, 33% lizards and 13% rodents. Breeding biology in South Africa is basically the same as that of Palaearctic populations, with the main differences being the habitat and cliff nest site.     

Clinal polymorphism variation in the Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus: the influence of climate during the breeding season

ABSTRACT

Capsule: The existence of clinal variation in the colour polymorphism of the Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus in its breeding area in the Palaearctic is probably caused by the influence of precipitation and the detectability of the two morphs in different light conditions.

Aims: To test whether Booted Eagles shows clinal variation in colour polymorphism along its breeding range in the Palaearctic and to test if there was selective or/and environmental pressure in the polymorphism throughout its breeding range in the Palaearctic and South Africa.

Methods: Published data were obtained on the proportion of colour morphs of seven study populations within the Palaearctic and South Africa, as well as those of 11 populations on the Iberian Peninsula, and the variation was examined in relation to longitude, latitude, and environmental and meteorological variables.

Results: There was a strong relationship between the proportion of the dark morph and longitude from west to east. In the Palaearctic and South Africa, there was a strong positive relationship between the proportion of the dark morph and the amount of rainfall during the period of chick growth.

Conclusion: There is clinal variation in colour polymorphism in the Booted Eagle. The variation is probably maintained by disruptive selection due to climatic factors such as rain and cloud cover, which influence the detectability of the different colour morphs to their prey.     

ASPECTS OF THE BREEDING BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE SECRETARYBIRD SAGITTARIUS SERPENTARIUS NEAR PRETORIA,SOUTH AFRICA

Kemp, A. C. 1995. Aspects of the breeding biology and behaviour of the Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius near Pretoria, South Africa. Ostrich 66: 61–68.

Secretarybirds in three adjacent territories were monitored from 1977 to 1988 on grass- and croplands near Pretoria, South Africa. Most observations of breeding biology and behaviour confirmed or extended previous studies. There was no correlation between pairs in occupancy of territory, productivity or development periods of young: this confirms the flexible breeding abilities which are unusual for such a large bird. Some aspects of breeding biology (egg shape and texture, watering of chicks) and behaviour (Wings open and Up-down greeting displays) may be homologous with storks and important in understanding the phylogeny and evolution of the Sagitariidae and other diurnal raptors.     

DISTRIBUTION,POPULATION SIZE AND CONSERVATION OF THE SWIFT TERN STERNA BERGII IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Cooper, J., Crawford, R. J. M., Suter, W. & Williams, A. J. 1990. Distribution, population size and conservation of the Swift Tern Sterna bergü in southern Africa. Ostrich 61: 56–65.

The Swift Tern Srerna bergü occurs commonly in coastal southern Africa, with a nonbreeding distribution extending the length of the southern African coast and into southern Angola. The known nonbreeding distribubon of the nominate subspecies S. b. bergü extends from Swakomund, Namibia to Kosi Bay, Natal, South Africa. In Natal its nonbreeding distribution overlaps with that of the subspecies S. b. enigma. The species very rarely occurs inland or far out to sea. The geedin distribution of tre nominate subspecies extends from Swakopmund to Algoa Bay, eastern Cape, South Afcnca.

Twenty-two breeding localities are known in southern Africa, but usually only six to seven are occupied. in any one year. Most breeding localities are marine islands where Swift Terns often breed in muted colonies with Hartlaub's Gulls Lorus hartloubii. In 1984 a complete breeding ansus estimated a breeding population of 4835 pairs. However, 6088 pairs were counted at only three localities in 1988. The size of the annual breeding population varies by a factor of as much as 1,6; although the overall size of the adult population is thought to be reasonably stable with no temporal trends evident. Thirteen breeding localities which are legally proclaimed nature reserves supported 72% of the 1984 breeding population. Existing and perceived threats to the Swift Tern are discussed in detail. To improve further tRe conservation status of the Swift Tern in southern Africa, it is recommended that: unprotected breeding localities be proclaimed reserves, also protecting those not on islands with adequate fences; feral cats be removed from breeding islands where they are present; and fisherman be educated to release entangled terns and not to discard lines and nets.     

MORPHOMETRICS AND BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE WHITECHINNED PETREL PROCELLARIA AEQUINOCTIALIS AT SUB-ANTARCTIC MARION ISLAND

Berruti, A., Cooper, J. & Newton, I.P. 1995. Morphometrics and breeding biology of the Whitechinned Petrel Procellaria aequinoctialis at sub-Antarctic Marion Island. Ostrich 66: 74–80.

Aspects of adult morphometrics and the breeding biology of the summer-breeding Whitechinned Petrel at sub-Antarctic Marion Island, southern Indian Ocean, are given, based on a study conducted in 1980/91, along with additional observations on breeding success made in 1990191. It is concluded that Whitechinned Petrels at Marion Island are similarly sized and breed in a similar manner to other studied populations of the nominate race. The eradication of cats at Marion Island in 1991 should now lead to a slow population recovery.     

FIELD STUDIES OF THE AFRICAN CRAKE CREX EGREGIA IN ZAMBIA AND KENYA

Taylor, P. B. 1985. Field studies of the African Crake Crex egregia in Zambia and Kenya. Ostrich 56: 170–185.

Field observations were made of a breeding population of African Crake Crex egregia at Ndola, Zambia from 1975 to 1980 and of a nonbreeding population at Mombasa, Kenya in 1981. Both populations are migratory and the Kenyan birds are thought to breed in southern Africa. Habitat requirements, migrations and patterns of occurrence are described. Population estimates give the density of breeding birds as 1 bird/2,6ha and of nonbreeding birds as 1 bird/1,99-2,73 ha. Local movements are evident at Mombasa. The crakes are thought to be territorial in both the breeding and nonbreeding seasons and the pair bond is sustained or formed during the nonbreeding season. Habits and behaviour are described, including courtship, copulation, aggression, feeding, roosting and vocalizations. Breeding, moult and predation are briefly discussed.     

ON THE BREEDING OF THE WHITE-RUMPED SWIFT (APUS CAFFER CAFFER) IN GATOOMA

Crawford, R. J. M., Cooper, J. &; Shelton, P. A. 1982. Distribution, population size, breeding and conservation of the Kelp Gull in southern Africa. Ostrich 53:164:177.

The Kelp Gull Lams dominicanus in Africa occurs coastally between Luanda, Angola and Delagoa Bay, Moçmbique. It breeds between Cape Cross Lagoon, South West Africa/Namibia and Riet River, eastern Cape, South Africa. Censuses of nests and breeding birds at all known southern African breeding localities in the period 1976–1981 indicated that 11 199 pairs bred at 52 localities; 79.5% of this population occurred in South Africa, 57,1% in the Saldanha Bay to Dassen Island region, southwestern Cape. Of the breeding pairs 83% occurred on offshore islands and rocks. Colony size at islands is related to their surface area andMayalso be influenced by food availability and the level of human disturbance. The species breeds in a wide variety of habitats ranging from cliffs and rock stacks to wooden platforms, lowlying vegetation among sand dunes and estuarine sandbars. Any available material is used in the construction of nests, whichMaybe as dense as 4/m² Clutch size is 2–3 eggs. In 1978 breeding took place earlier in South Africa than in South West Africa/Namibia. 92% of the population breeds m sites which are legally protected. Kelp Gulls have decreased or increased in numbers at some breeding localities but there is no clear overall trend. Any increases in colony size near urban areasMayresult in added airstrike hazards.     

Flight strategies of migrating raptors; a comparative study of interspecific variation in flight characteristics

The comparison of flight styles and flight parameters of migrating raptors in Israel revealed the following. (1) Climbing rate in thermal circling did not differ between species, indicating that chiefly the strength of thermal updrafts determined the climbing rate and that morphological features were less relevant. (2) In interthermal gliding, air speed was positively and gliding angle negatively related to the species' average body mass. Heavier species glided faster and had smaller gliding angles. (3) In soaring and gliding flight, cross-country speed relative to the air was positively related to the species' body mass; it was obviously the result of the gliding ability increasing with body mass. (4) Eagles and buzzards used soaring and gliding flight for more than 95% of the observation time. Additional soaring in a straight line whilst gliding was extensively used by the Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis, Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina and Booted Eagle Hieraætus pennatus and even more frequently by the resident species, the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus and Shorttoed Eagle Circaetus gallicus. Smaller species, such as the Levant Sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes, harriers (Circus sp.) and small falcons (Falco sp.). showed the highest proportion of flapping and gliding flight (9–33%). (5) In a comparison of the flight parameters and proportions of flight styles, a cluster analysis distinguished two main groups: The first consisted of Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus, Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus, Levant Sparrowhawk and small falcons; their flight behaviour was characterized by both the high proportion of flapping and the low gliding performance. The second group comprised the typical soaring migrants: Steppe Eagle, Lesser Spotted Eagle, Booted Eagle, Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus, Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus and Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus, and they had very similar flight behaviour and were closely clustered. The Black Kite Milvus migrans and Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus were intermediate between typical soarers and flappers. The two resident species, Griffon Vulture and Short-toed Eagle, were grouped separately from the soaring migrants.     

ASPECTS OF THE POPULATION DYNAMICS OF CAPE VULTURES IN THE CAPE PROVINCE

Robertson, A. S. 1984. Aspects of the population dynamics of Cape Vultures in the Cape Province. Ostrich 55: 196–206.

Information gathered in 1981 and 1982 and collated from previous records on the numbers, spatial distribution, proportion of age classes, age and frequency of breeding, breeding success and causes of breeding failure, and the survival of immature and adult Cape Vultures Gyps coprotheres in the southern and southwestern areas of the Cape Province, South Africa, is presented. This sub-population of about 75 birds is apparently isolated from conspecifics in the rest of southern Africa; the implications of this are discussed. At the Potberg colony in both years an average of 85% of birds 5 years and older were involved in breeding attempts. The age of first breeding was 4–6 years. Nest sites were active for about two in every three years. Between 1975 and 1982, 0,51-0,67 nestlings were reared per active nest site (n=165). Four (possible maximum six) of 21 immatures were resighted one year after they had flown. Of 123 birds that had been ringed at Potberg to 1980, 14 (11%) were sighted in 1981; only four of 48(8%) colour-ringed birds 5 years old and older were breeding in 1981.     

BREEDING BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE QUAIL FINCH ORTYGOSPIZA ATRICOLUS

Summary

Nuttall, R.J. 1992. Breeding biology and behaviour of the Quail Finch Ortygospiza atricollis. Ostrich 63:110-117.

During a study of the breeding biology of the Quail Finch Ortygospiza atricollis, observations of nest-building, egg-laying, incubation and nestling periods, and nestling development in a grassland near Pietermaritzburg, South Africa were supplemented with observations of breeding behaviour in captivity. Mean clutch size was 4,5 and eggs were laid at intervals of approximately one day. Incubation began after the third or fourth egg was laid. An incubation period of 15–16 days and an estimated nestling period of 18–19 days was recorded. Incubation and brooding are shared by both sexes. Breeding success was low (26,7% ?28,6%), with most losses resulting from predation during either the egg-laying or incubation stages.     

Parental care,nestling growth and diet in a Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga nest

Capsule The breeding biology of the Spotted Eagle was studied and we analysed results from direct observations at a nest in Estonia.     

DISTRIBUTION,POPULATION SIZE AND CONSERVATION OF THE CASPIAN TERN STERNA CASPIA IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Cooper, J., Brooke, R.K., Cyrus, D.P., Martin, A.P., Taylor, R.H. & Williams, A.J. 1992. Distribution, population size and conservation of the Caspian Tern Sterna caspia in southern Africa. Ostrich 63: 58–67.

The Caspian Tern Sterna caspia occurs along the whole southern African coastline and on large river systems and water bodies away from the coast. A total of 28 definite breeding localities has been recorded in southern Africa. Breeding has occurred recently at at least 14 coastal localities between Swakopmund, Namibia, and Lake St Lucia, Natal, South Africa. Inland breeding has been recorded in recent years at Sua Pan, Botswana and Kalkfonteindam, Orange Free State, South Africa. Based on censuses conducted between 1980 and 1991, the southern African breeding population is estimated to be of the order of 500 pairs, 91% of which breed coastally and 89% breed on islands. Up to 290 pairs (58%) bred at Lake St Lucia. Seventyone per cent of the 1980–1991 breeding population falls within eight nature reserves. Conservation of the Caspian Tern in southern Africa requires protection at breeding localities, including commercial salt and soda ash extraction works, against the effects of changing water levels, human disturbance and predation. Pesticide levels of addled and abandoned eggs should be measured at selected breeding localities.     

FIRST ANNUAL REPORT ON THE RHODESIAN ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S NEST RECORD SCHEME FOR THE YEAR ENDED 30 JUNE, 1956

MENDELSOHN, J. M. 1989. Habitat preferences, population size, food and breeding of six owl species in the Springbok Flats, South Africa. Ostrich 60:183-190.

Information on the habitat preferences, population size, food and breeding of Barn, Grass, Whitefaced, Marsh, Pearlspotted and Spotted Eagle Owls was obtained in a 6900-ha area in the Springbok Flats, South Africa. Seventy-two per cent of the area consisted of cultivated fields not usually used by owls. Hunting, roosting and nesting requirements were largely met in 1930 ha of verges, farmyards and patches of wood land ant grassland, here was an estimated total population of 303 owls in the area, giving an overall density of 22,7 ho/owl for the whole area or 6.4 ha/owl for those areas used by owls. These high densities were attributed to an abundance of Mastomys natalensis, the most important prey item for all except Pearlspotted Owls. Rates of predation on M. natalensis varied in relation to their population density, as indicated by rodent trapping results. Marsh Owls ate more insects in summer than at other times. Barn and Marsh Owls usuall laid in March-April and August-September, while other species started breeding in July-October. de timing of breeding of some owls may be related to changes in rates of recruitment of juvenile M. natalensis. Most Marsh Owl nests were placed on the southwestern sides of grass clumps or shrubs.     

ASPECTS OF THE BREEDING STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BATELEUR AND TAWNY EAGLE IN THE KALAHARI GEMSBOK NATIONAL PARK,SOUTH AFRICA

Herholdt, J.J., Kemp, A.C. & Du Plessis, D. 1996. Aspects of the breeding status and ecology of the Bateleur and Tawny Eagle in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park. Ostrich 67:126-137.

The nesting success at 13 nesting territories of Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus and 19 nesting territorites of Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax was monitored for seven successive years (1988–1994) in a protected area in the Kalahari desert of South Africa. On average Bateleurs laid one year in two (51/95 pair-years) and fledged 0.33 young/pair/year (31/95). Tawny Eagles laid, on average, in two out of three years (66/105), and fledged 0.4 young/pair/year (42/105). Most Bateleurs laid eggs in January and February, while Tawny Eagles mostly laid from May to June. Almost all Bateleur and Tawny Eagle nesting territories located were in the Acacia erioloba savanna in the dry Auob and Nossob riverbeds. Bateleur nesting territories were spaced at intervals of 7.2 km (2.5–14.6 km; n = 9) along the Nossob River. Tawny Eagle nesting territories were spaced at intervals of 17.6 km (6.1–32.7 km) in the Nossob River and 11.3 km (8–14 km) in the Auob River respectively. A total of 13 Bateleur and 30–40 Tawny Eagle nesting territories (27 known active nesting territories) respectively occurred in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park during the study period. There was evidence of a 13% decline in active nesting territories of Bateleur during the seven year study, and at least a 40% decline over the previous 10 years. Vacated nesting territories were not reoccupied. There was no safe buffer zone around the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park and persecution in the adjacent farmlands, when foraging Bateleur from the protected Park enter these areas, as well as nesting site disturbance, could have been part of the reason for this decline. Poisoned and suspected poisoned Bateleurs have been found in the Park during the study period. There was no obvious decline in active Tawny Eagle nesting territories.     

8. THE NIVEN FAMILY VISITS NYASALAND

Species worldwide are threatened due to various factors including habitat transformation and degradation. The Gurney's Sugarbird Promerops gurneyi is a bird species endemic to southern Africa. It is a nectarivorous species that is highly dependent on Protea woodland areas in the eastern parts of southern Africa and makes seasonal migrations between these localities. Although many of these habitats have been destroyed by human development activities, the start of commercial Protea farms in the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands may provide alternative habitat and year-round food resources for sugarbirds. Presence/absence of Gurney's Sugarbird on seven KwaZulu-Natal Protea farms were recorded monthly for one year (2006–2007) and compared to past distributions from 1980 and 1992. Sugarbirds were found to be resident for the entire year on some farms and breeding. The total distribution of Gurney's Sugarbird has extended with the development of Protea farms, as has its seasonal distribution and its breeding range. Our results also highlight the reliance that sugarbirds have on Protea whether indigenous or exotic species. More research on the interactions between Gurney's Sugarbirds and the commercial Protea farms is needed.     

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE KAOKOVELD

Whitfield, A. K. &; Blaber, S. J. M. 1978. Feeding ecology of piscivorous birds at Lake St Lucia, Part 1: Diving birds. Ostrich 49:185-198.

The diets of three species of diving piscivorous birds at Lake St Lucia, Natal, South Africa during 1975 and 1976 are described and related to availability and abundance of different prey species. Mugilidae and Clarias gariepinus were the chief prey of the Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer, while Johnius belengcrii and Sarotherodon mossambicus were, respectively, the main food items of Caspian Terns Hydroprogne tschegruva, and Pied Kingfishers Ceryle rudis. The methods of prey capture used by the three species of birds are described.

Predation on particular species of fish was related primarily to their swimming depth, abundance, size and distribution in littoral areas. Fishing habits, densities and foraging periodicity of the birds are discussed with regard to physical parameters such as thermals, wind speeds and water turbidity. The timing of breeding seasons at Lake St Lucia is related to fish densities, lake levels, turbidity of the water and air temperatures.     

DISTRIBUTION, SYSTEMATICS, AND POLYMORPHISM OF THE AFRICAN WEAVER-BIRD QUELEA QUELEA

Quelea quelea is distributed throughout Africa south of the Sahara in the Grass Steppe, Dry Savanna, and Montane Grassland biomes. It is most numerous where its staple food–the seeds of annual grasses–is most plentiful. In all parts of the range, the males in nuptial plumage are dimorphic. Everywhere the “black—faced” morph is commoner, but with up to 25% of “white-faced”. Proportions of the morphs are given for samples from various parts of Africa. Only three races are accepted: quelea of western West Africa, aethiopica of the Sudan area, and lathami of southern Africa. In the Lake Chad basin there are hybrid swarms breeding (queleaj aethiopica), as there are in East Africa where aethiopica/lathami swarms occur.     

THE CHARACTERS OF A NEW RACE OF Alcedo semitorquata Swainson FROM THE LOW COUNTRY OF PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA

Arkell, G. B. F. 1979. Aspects of the feeding and breeding biology of the Giant Kingfisher. Ostrich 50:176-181.

Giant Kingfishers Megaceryle maxima were studied during 1972–1975 on the Eerste and Blaauwklip Rivers near Stellenbosch (33 53s; 18 50E), South Africa. Nest record cards of the Southern African Ornithological Society were examined for dimensions of the nest, nest lining, clutch-size and brood-size. The feeding rate of nestlings was determined from observations at the nest. Two adults, comprising a pair of breeding birds, and a fledgling wert equipped with breast-mounted miniature radio transmitter packages to monitor the birds activity and home range. Cape River Crabs Potamon perlatus apparently were the main prey of the kingfishers. A correlation was found between the activity patterns of kingfishers and of crabs, which peaked in the mornings and evenings.     

GENERAL NOTES

Macdonald, M. A. 1980. The ecology of the Fiscal Shrike in Ghana, and a comparison with studies from southern Africa. Ostrich 51:65-74.

The Fiscal Shrike Lanius collaris was studied in southern Ghana in order to compare its ecology there with that in southern Africa. The bird was found mainly in the damper coastal areas and usually in habitats created by man. Feeding behaviour is described. Food consisted mainly of a wide variety of insects. Territories were small at around 0,6 ha. Most nests were built 1,8-2,4 m from the ground, and eggs were laid from December to October. Moult appeared to take place in September to November when breeding activity was low. The normal and maximum clutch was three eggs. At most, 10–17% of clutches produced fledged young. Most losses were probably caused by predators. Two successful broods per pair were reared annually. Post-fledging survival of the young was high, and they remained on the parental territory for 5–7 months. Contrasts between the breeding biology in Ghana and southern Africa may be related to differences in environmental seasonality and perhaps also in the severity of nest losses.     

GENERAL BIOLOGY OF SPECIES

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