Educators of Prospective Teachers Hesitate to Embrace Evolution Due to Deficient Understanding of Science/Evolution and High Religiosity

Acceptance of evolution by educators of prospective teachers remains superficially studied despite their role in having mentored schoolteachers whose weak support of evolution is known. Here, we contrast the views of New England educators of prospective teachers (n = 62; 87% Ph.D./doctorate holders in 32 specializations) with those of the general faculty (n = 244; 93% Ph.D./doctorate holders in 40 disciplines), both members of 35 colleges and universities, and with college students (n = 827; subsample of the 35 institutions) who were polled on: (1) the controversy evolution vs. creationism vs. intelligent design (ID), (2) their understanding of how science/evolution works, and (3) their religiosity. The educators held intermediate positions in respect to the general faculty and the students: 94% of the general faculty, 75% of the educators, and 63% of the students said they accepted evolution openly; and 82% of the general faculty, 71% of the educators, and 58% of the students thought that evolution is definitely true. Only 3% of the general faculty in comparison to 19% of the educators and 24% of the students thought that evolution and creationism are in harmony. Although 93% of the general faculty, educators, and students knew that evolution relies on common ancestry, 26% of the general faculty, 45% of the educators, and 35% of the students did not know that humans are apes. Remarkably, 15% of the general faculty, 32% of the educators, and 35% of the students believed, incorrectly, that the origin of the human mind cannot be explained by evolution; and 30% of the general faculty, 59% of the educators, and 75% of the students were Lamarckian (=believed in inheritance of acquired traits). For science education: 96% of the general faculty, 86% of the educators, and 71% of the students supported the exclusive teaching of evolution, while 4% of the general faculty, 14% of the educators, and 29% of the students favored equal time to evolution, creationism and ID; note that 92% of the general faculty, 82% of the educators, and 50% of the students perceived ID as either not scientific and proposed to counter evolution based on false claims or as religious doctrine consistent with creationism. The general faculty was the most knowledgeable about science/evolution and the least religious (science index, SI = 2.49; evolution index, EI = 2.49; and religiosity index, RI = 0.49); the educators reached lower science/evolution but higher religiosity indexes than the general faculty (SI = 1.96, EI = 1.96, and RI = 0.83); and the students were the least knowledgeable about science/evolution and the most religious (SI = 1.80, EI = 1.60, and RI = 0.89). Understanding of science and evolution were inversely correlated with level of religiosity, and understanding of evolution increased with increasing science literacy. Interestingly, ≈36% of the general faculty, educators and students considered religion to be very important in their lives, and 17% of the general faculty, 34% of the educators, and 28% of the students said they prayed daily. Assessing the perception of evolution by educators of prospective teachers vs. the general faculty and the students of New England, one of the historically most progressive regions in the U.S., is crucial for determining the magnitude of the impact of creationism and ID on attitudes toward science, reason, and education in science.     

Assessment of Biology Majors’ Versus Nonmajors’ Views on Evolution, Creationism, and Intelligent Design

The controversy around evolution, creationism, and intelligent design resides in a historical struggle between scientific knowledge and popular belief. Four hundred seventy-six students (biology majors n = 237, nonmajors n = 239) at a secular liberal arts private university in Northeastern United States responded to a five-question survey to assess their views about: (1) evolution, creationism, and intelligent design in the science class; (2) students’ attitudes toward evolution; (3) students’ position about the teaching of human evolution; (4) evolution in science exams; and (5) students’ willingness to discuss evolution openly. There were 60.6% of biology majors and 42% of nonmajors supported the exclusive teaching of evolution in the science class, while 45.3% of nonmajors and 32% of majors were willing to learn equally about evolution, creationism, and intelligent design (question 1); 70.5% of biology majors and 55.6% of nonmajors valued the factual explanations evolution provides about the origin of life and its place in the universe (question 2); 78% of the combined responders (majors plus nonmajors) preferred science courses where evolution is discussed comprehensively and humans are part of it (question 3); 69% of the combined responders (majors plus nonmajors) had no problem answering questions concerning evolution in science exams (question 4); 48.1% of biology majors and 26.8% of nonmajors accepted evolution and expressed it openly, but 18.2% of the former and 14.2% of the latter accepted evolution privately; 46% of nonmajors and 29.1% of biology majors were reluctant to comment on this topic (question 5). Combined open plus private acceptance of evolution within biology majors increased with seniority, from freshman (60.7%) to seniors (81%), presumably due to gradual exposure to upper-division biology courses with evolutionary content. College curricular/pedagogical reform should fortify evolution literacy at all education levels, particularly among nonbiologists.     

Texas Biology and Biological Anthropology Faculty Express Their Views on Teaching Evolution

Unsurprisingly, survey results indicate that Texas biology and biological anthropology faculty with expertise in an evolutionary area strongly support teaching “just evolution” (100%; N = 54) and not creationism/intelligent design. Importantly, they do not think that religious faith is incompatible with acceptance of evolutionary biology (91%; N = 55), even though 50% (N = 52) describe themselves as “not at all religious.” As school boards nationwide debate science standards, it is important that faculty with relevant expertise have a voice. Biological anthropologists should not be overlooked as a public resource in these debates.     

Attitudes of Students at a Private Christian Liberal Arts University Toward the Teaching of Evolution

Students at private Christian colleges tend to have a viewpoint that incorporates faith and belief in God. Whether due to misconceptions about evolution, lack of knowledge of the nature of science, or belief that their faith cannot allow them to accept evolution, there tends to be a great deal of confusion about evolution. This study investigates the attitudes toward evolution of students at a small Christian liberal arts university located in east Texas (East Texas Baptist University, ETBU) and how they would feel most comfortable being approached about evolution in the college science classroom. The majority of students at ETBU are from either Texas or Louisiana. In high school, both states require at least one science course to be taken and evolution to be taught at some level of understanding. Students show a fair understanding that science includes only naturalistic explanations . However, a greater number of science courses and maturity level of the student resulted in significant differences (P = 0.0001 and P = 0.002, respectively) in the understanding of science. Nevertheless, there was a general assertion that God should be included in the definition of science by the majority of students (64.4%), indicating a misunderstanding of the nature of science. Students responded that they would be most comfortable with being approached in the classroom about evolution through the presentation of the science supporting evolution (19.6%), and being shown how creationism and intelligent design are not science (29.8%). A number of students responded that the professor should accept creationism and intelligent design as science and teach them as such (38.2%). This paper will present methods to address students that respond to evolution in this manner.     

Acceptance of Evolution Increases with Student Academic Level: A Comparison Between a Secular and a Religious College

Acceptance of evolution among the general public, high schools, teachers, and scientists has been documented in the USA; little is known about college students’ views on evolution; this population is relevant since it transits from a high-school/parent-protective environment to an independent role in societal decisions. Here we compare perspectives about evolution, creationism, and intelligent design (ID) between a secular (S) and a religious (R) college in the Northeastern USA. Interinstitutional comparisons showed that 64% (mean S + R) biology majors vs. 42/62% (S/R) nonmajors supported the exclusive teaching of evolution in science classes; 24/29% (S/R) biology majors vs. 26/38% (S/R) nonmajors perceived ID as both alternative to evolution and/or scientific theory about the origin of life; 76% (mean S + R) biology majors and nonmajors accepted evolutionary explanations about the origin of life; 86% (mean S + R) biology majors vs. 79% (mean S + R) nonmajors preferred science courses where human evolution is discussed; 76% (mean S+R) biology majors vs. 79% (mean S + R) nonmajors welcomed questions about evolution in exams and/or thought that such questions should always be in exams; and 66% (mean S + R) biology majors vs. 46% (mean S + R) nonmajors admitted they accept evolution openly and/or privately. Intrainstitutional comparisons showed that overall acceptance of evolution among biologists (S or R) increased gradually from the freshman to the senior year, due to exposure to upper-division courses with evolutionary content. College curricular/pedagogical reform should fortify evolution literacy at all education levels, particularly among nonbiologists.     

Educational Malpractice: The Impact of Including Creationism in High School Biology Courses

College students whose recollections of their high school biology courses included creationism were significantly more likely to invoke creationism-based answers on questions derived from the Material Acceptance of the Theory of Evolution (MATE) instrument than were students whose recollections of their high school biology courses included evolution but not creationism. On average, students who were taught neither evolution nor creationism in their high school biology courses exhibited intermediary responses on the MATE instrument. These results suggest that (1) high school teachers’ treatments of evolution and creationism have a lasting impact and (2) the inclusion of creationism in high school biology courses increases the probability that students accept creationism and reject evolution when they arrive at college. These results are discussed relative to the impact of high school biology courses on students’ subsequent acceptance of evolution and creationism.     

It's Déjà Vu All Over Again: The Intelligent Design Movement's Recycling of Creationist Strategies

The intelligent design (ID) creationist movement is now a quarter of a century old. ID proponents at the Discovery Institute, headquartered in Seattle, WA, USA, insist that ID is not creationism. However, it is the direct descendant of the creation science movement that began in the 1960s and continued until the definitive ruling against creationism by the US Supreme Court in Edwards v. Aguillard 1987, which struck down laws that required balancing the teaching of evolution with creationism in public schools. Already anticipating in the early 1980s that Arkansas and Louisiana “balanced treatment” laws would be declared unconstitutional, a group of creationists led by Charles Thaxton began laying the groundwork for what is now the ID movement. After Edwards, Thaxton and his associates promoted ID aggressively until it, too, was declared unconstitutional by a federal judge in Kitzmiller et al. v. Dover Area School District 2005. Subsequently, in 2008, the Discovery Institute began its multistate promotion of model “academic freedom” legislation that bears striking parallels to the 1980s balanced treatment laws. Because of Kitzmiller, ID proponents have written their model legislation in code language in an effort to avoid another court challenge. Yet despite attempting to evade the legal constraints imposed by Edwards, they are merely recycling earlier creationist tactics that date back to the late 1970s and early 1980s. The tactics that ID creationists now use—promoting legislation, publishing “educational” materials, establishing a “research” institute, and sanitizing their terminology—are the recycled tactics of their creation science predecessors.     

Effects of food availability on fledging condition and post-fledging survival in king penguin chicks

Effects of summer food shortage on king penguin Aptenodytes patagonicus chicks were studied at South Georgia. Two cohorts were compared, fledging in the austral summers of 1992 (n = 32) and 1994 (n = 33) when availability of food was judged good and poor, respectively. The former cohort had a higher pre-fledging mean mass (12.78 kg vs ≤ 10.03 kg), fledged earlier (median 5 January vs 21 January), and a higher proportion was re-sighted within 2 years of fledging (28% vs 0%). Within 4 years, 47% of the former cohort had been re-sighted (i.e. post-fledge survival); in addition, one was observed at the Falkland Islands, and 22% had bred (i.e. recruitment) in their colony of origin. The re-sighted chicks of the 1992 cohort fledged earlier than those not re-sighted (median 24 December vs 10 January), but it remain unclear if they were heavier at fledging. All chicks in this study (n = 65) were marked with both transponders (subcutaneously implanted) and flipper bands (on one flipper), and no losses of any markings were found (controlled up to 4 years afterwards). Therefore, data on chick post-fledging survival and recruitment were not adjusted for losses of markings, as has been done in other studies. Received: 21 October 1996 / Accepted: 2 February 1997     

Isoprenaline increases the slopes of restitution trajectory in the conscious rabbit with ischemic heart failure

Roughly speaking, restitution is the dependence of recovery time of cardiac electrical activity on heart rate. Increased restitution slope is theorized to be predictive of sudden death after heart injury such as from coronary artery occlusion (ischemia). Adrenaline analogs are known to increase restitution slope in normal hearts, but their effects in failing hearts are unknown. Twenty-six rabbits underwent coronary ligation (n = 15) or sham surgery (n = 11) and implantation of a lead in the heart for recording electrocardiograms. Eight weeks later, unanesthetized rabbits were given 0.25–2.0 ml of 1 μmol/L isoprenaline intravenously, which increased heart rate. Heart rate was quantified by time between QRS peaks (RR) and heart activity duration by R to T peak time (QTp). Ligated rabbits (n = 6) had lower ejection fraction than sham rabbits (n = 7, p < 0.0001) indicative of heart failure, but similar baseline RR (269 ± 15 vs 292 ± 23 ms, p = 0.07), QTp (104 ± 17 vs 91 ± 9 ms, p = 0.1), and isoprenaline-induced minimum RR (204 ± 11 vs 208 ± 6 ms, p = 0.4). The trajectory of QTp vs TQ plots displayed hysteresis and regions of negative slope. The slope of the positive slope region was >1 in ligated rabbits (1.27 ± 0.66) and <1 in sham rabbits (0.35 ± 0.14, p = 0.004). The absolute value of the negative slope was greater in ligated rabbits (− 0.81 ± 0.52 vs − 0.35 ± 0.14, p = 0.04). Isoprenaline increased heart rate and slopes of restitution trajectory in failing hearts. The dynamics of restitution trajectory may hold clues for sudden death in heart failure patients.     

Aflatoxins levels in vegetable oils in Khartoum State,Sudan

Vegetable oil (n = 81) for human consumption from Khartoum State in Sudan were analyzed for aflatoxins (AFs), using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection following extraction with methanol:water (80:20) and clean-up using petroleum ether. Sampling included sesame oil (n = 14), peanut oil (n = 21), and sunflower oil (n = 19) purchased from retail shops, and mixed oil produced by two local manufacturers (factory A, n = 15; factory B, n = 12). AF contamination was found in 80/81 (98.8%) samples, with total AF levels ( AFB₁ + AFB₂ + AFG₁ + AFG₂ ) \left( {{\hbox{AF}}{{\hbox{B}}_{\rm{1}}} + {\hbox{AF}}{{\hbox{B}}_{\rm{2}}} + {\hbox{AF}}{{\hbox{G}}_{\rm{1}}} + {\hbox{AF}}{{\hbox{G}}_{\rm{2}}}} \right) of 0.43–339.9 μg/kg and mean level of 57.5 μg/kg. All sesame oils had total AF levels that were much higher than the United States Food and Drug Administration acceptable limit of 20 μg/kg. The percentage of samples with total AF values <20 μg/kg in other oils varied and was 57.14% in peanut oil, 36.8% in sunflower oil, 66.7% (mixed oil from factory A), and 91.7% (mixed oil from factory B). In conclusion, the levels of total AFs in edible oil as available in Khartoum State are quite alarming. To reduce the health hazards for the consumers, an intervention strategy to manage AFs in food commodities from Sudan is urgently required.     

Zinc in Postmortem Body Tissues and Fluids

Data on zinc concentration in the human body may be used to interpret the results obtained in cases of chronic and acute poisonings with zinc compounds, i.e., in clinical and forensic toxicology. In this paper, the concentrations of zinc in human tissues and body fluids obtained from autopsy cases concerning non-poisoned people (n = 203), aged from 14 to 80 years, between 1995 and 2008, are presented. The following values were found by the flame atomic absorption method (mean ± SD, median, range, in microgram per gram or microgram per milliliter): brain 10.3 ± 1.36, 10.2, 7.99–13.8 (n = 48); stomach 14.2 ± 3.63, 13.6, 8.00–22.5 (n = 71); intestines 15.7 ± 5.22, 15.8, 8.36–28.1 (n = 35); liver 39.6 ± 16.1, 36.6, 16.0–78.8 (n = 109); kidney 33.8 ± 10.1, 31.8, 16.4–60.9 (n = 93); lung 12.0 ± 3.88, 11.0, 6.13–18.7 (n = 26); spleen 14.7 ± 2.53, 14.6, 11.4–18.3 (n = 5); heart 26.5 ± 3.63, 26.7, 22.5–31.8 (n = 5); blood 6.81 ± 1.21, 7.00, 4.02–8.68 (n = 50); urine 0.69 ± 1.70, 0.60, 0.39–1.00 (n = 5), and bile 4.92 ± 1.64, 3.75, 3.20–7.09 (n = 9). The accuracy of the method was checked through the use of SRM Bovine Liver 1577b (certified: 127 ± 16 μg Zn/g, found: 117 ± 0.7 μg Zn/g (n = 6)).     

Juvenile morphology and occurrence patterns of three Butis species (Gobioidei: Eleotridae) in a mangrove estuary, southern Thailand

Juveniles of three eleotrid Butis species (B. butis, B. humeralis, and B. koilomatodon) are described; their occurrence patterns were examined in Sikao Creek, a mangrove estuary located in southern Thailand. Juveniles of each species were distinguished by the following characters: B. butis with no bands on body and pale pelvic fins; B. humeralis with no bands on body and densely pigmented pelvic fins; and B. koilomatodon with 5–6 regular bands on body and a fleshy process (preorbital knob) on the snout. Although B. butis shared the aforementioned characters with B. amboinensis found in the same estuary, the former was distinguished from the latter by having a greater number of pectoral fin rays (18–21 vs. 17) and a deeper caudal peduncle. Distribution patterns of the three Butis species in Sikao Creek were distinguishable from each other. Smaller B. butis [mean ± SD = 22.7 ± 16.9 mm in standard length (SL), n = 32] occurred in the upper reach of the estuary, while larger specimens (52.4 ± 26.2 mm SL, n = 18 and 51.5 ± 29.7 mm SL, n = 10, respectively) were found in the middle and lower reaches and none in the marine area. In B. humeralis and B. koilomatodon, only juveniles were caught except for one adult specimen each. Juveniles (8.9–16.5 mm SL, n = 79) of B. humeralis occurred in the upper and middle reaches and the marine area. B. koilomatodon juveniles (9.9–13.7 mm SL, n = 30) were distributed in all areas from the lower to upper reaches.     

Defensive Role of Quercetin Against Imbalances of Calcium,Sodium, and Potassium in Galactosemic Cataract

Galactosemic cataracts are characterized by electrolyte disturbances resulting in osmotic imbalance and loss of transparency. We have studied the defensive role of quercetin, a bioflavonoid, against the alterations of calcium (Ca²⁺), sodium (Na⁺), and potassium (K⁺) concentrations in galactose-induced cataract in a rodent model. The experimental study was conducted on weanling male Wistar rats with an average body weight of 34 ± 0.9 g. Different groups received normal stock AIN 93 diet (group A, n = 8), AIN 93 diet with 30% galactose (group B, n = 8), and AIN 93 diet with 30% galactose + quercetin at 400 mg/100 g diet (group C, n = 8). Aldose reductase activity and protein content and concentrations of Ca²⁺, Na+, and K⁺ were determined in normal and cataractous lenses. Treatment with quercetin resulted in a significant decrease in Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ and aldose reductase levels and an increase in K⁺ and protein levels in galactosemic cataractous lenses. These results imply that inclusion of quercetin contributes to lens transparency through the maintenance of characteristic osmotic ion equilibrium and protein levels of the lens.     

Copper Concentration in Body Tissues and Fluids in Normal Subjects of Southern Poland

Data on the concentration of the elements in the human body are important, for example, to estimate the amounts required to maintain a good healthy state or find their connections with morbidity and mortality. In this paper, the concentration of copper (by flame atomic absorption spectrometry) in material obtained from autopsy cases of nonpoisoned people (n = 130), aged from 14 to 80 years, between 1990–2006, is presented. The following values were found (mean ± SD in micrograms of copper per gram or per milliliter): brain 3.32 ± 1.50 (n = 43), liver 3.47 ± 1.51 (n = 79), kidney 2.15 ± 0.90 (n = 76), stomach 1.10 ± 0.76 (n = 65), intestines 1.54 ± 1.19 (n = 25), lung 1.91 ± 1.30 (n = 27), spleen 1.23 ± 0.28 (n = 3), heart 3.26 ± 0.59 (n = 5), bile 3.60 ± 1.67 (n = 13), and blood 0.85 ± 0.19 (n = 73).     

Spatial and temporal interactions of sympatric mountain lions in Arizona

Spatial and temporal interactions among individual members of populations can have direct applications to habitat management of mountain lions (Puma concolor). Our objectives were to evaluate home range overlap and spatial/temporal use of overlap zones (OZ) of mountain lions in Arizona. We incorporated spatial data with genetic analyses to assess relatedness between mountain lions with overlapping home ranges. We recorded the space use patterns of 29 radio-collared mountain lions in Arizona from August 2005 to August 2008. We genotyped 28 mountain lions and estimated the degree of relatedness among individuals. For 26 pairs of temporally overlapping mountain lions, 18 overlapped spatially and temporally and eight had corresponding genetic information. Home range overlap ranged from 1.18% to 46.38% ( [`(x)] = \text24.\text43 \overline x = {\text{24}}.{\text{43}} , SE = 2.96). Male–male pairs were located within 1 km of each other on average, 0.04% of the time, whereas male–female pairs on average were 3.0%. Two male–male pairs exhibited symmetrical spatial avoidance and two symmetrical spatial attractions to the OZ. We observed simultaneous temporal attraction in three male–male pairs and four male–female pairs. Individuals from Tucson were slightly related to one another within the population (n = 13, mean R = 0.0373 ± 0.0151) whereas lions from Payson (n = 6, mean R = −0.0079 ± 0.0356) and Prescott (n = 9, mean R = −0.0242 ± 0.0452) were not as related. Overall, males were less related to other males (n = 20, mean R = −0.0495 ± 0.0161) than females were related to other females (n = 8, mean R = 0.0015 ± 0.0839). Genetic distance was positively correlated with geographic distance (r ² = 0.22, P = 0.001). Spatial requirements and interactions influence social behavior and can play a role in determining population density.     

Selenium Levels in First-Degree Relatives of Diabetic Patients

The present study was conducted to evaluate the serum selenium levels in first-degree relatives of diabetic patients (FDR) according to controls. Insulin resistance, serum lipid levels, inflammation markers, and blood pressure were also studied in these patients. Serum levels of selenium in FDR were significantly lower than control group (74.65 ± 5.9 vs 88.7 ± 8.7 μg/dl, p < 0.0001). HsCRP, HOMA-IR, insulin, homocysteine levels were significantly higher in FDR according to the control group (1.32 ± 0.9 vs 0.63 ± 0.4 mg/dL, p < 0.0001; 2.07 ± 0.84 vs 1.51 ± 0.69, p < 0.0001; 9.26 ± 3.8 vs 6.8 ± 2.98 μU/MI, p < 0.0001; 15.7 ± 7.4 vs 11.5 ± 5.1 μmol/L, p < 0.0001, respectively). There was significant correlation between selenium levels and hsCRP (r = − 0.450, p < 0.0001). There was also weak significant correlation also between HOMA-IR and selenium levels (r = −0.227, p = 0.003). There was a correlation between systolic blood pressure and BMI (r = 0.365, p < 0.0001). But there was no correlation between selenium levels and blood pressure or other parameters. HsCRP, HOMA-IR, homocysteine levels in individuals with selenium levels < 80 μg/L (n = 78) was significantly higher than hsCRP HOMA-IR, homocysteine levels in individuals with selenium levels ≥ 80 (n = 91; 1.23 ± 0.98 vs 0.81 ± 0.76 mg/dL, p < 0.003; 1.99 ± 0.88 vs 1.64 ± 0.74, p < 0.005; 15.0 ± 7.6 vs 12.9 ± 5.7 μmol/L, p < 0.049, respectively). Selenium deficiency may contribute to cardiovascular disease risk in FDR.     

Differences in muscle contractile characteristics among bodybuilders, endurance trainers and control subjects

The purpose of this investigation was to compare the myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform expression of the triceps brachii muscle and isoinertial, isometric and isokinetic strength indices in competitive bodybuilders (CB, n = 5), recreational resistance trainers (RT, n = 5), endurance-trained rowers (ER, n = 5) and control (C, n = 5) subjects. Muscle tissue samples were analysed for MHC isoform content using 6% sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The CB possessed significantly smaller (P < 0.05) percentage of MHC type IIb proteins [12.92 (SD 7.08)%] than RT [30.08 (SD 6.58)%] ER [31.20 (SD 2.74)%] and C [38.22 (SD 2.95)%] groups (i.e. CB < RT ≈ ER < C). While the content of MHC type IIa isoforms did not differ significantly between the two resistance-trained groups [CB = 55.76 (SD 5.38)%; RT = 45.72 (SD 7.8)%], CB presented significantly more type IIa MHC isoforms than ER [42.84 (SD 2.98)%] and C [34.72 (SD 1.57)%] subjects (i.e. CB ≈ RT > ER ≈ C). The MHC type I protein content did not differ significantly among RT [24.20 (SD 4.89)%] ER [25.38 (SD 1.67)%] and C [27.06 (SD 1.81)%] groups. The CB [31.32 (SD 2.67)%] presented significantly more type I MHC isoforms only in comparison with RT. However, when changes in the percentage of MHC type I isoforms were converted to effect sizes (ES), it appeared that low statistical power rather than the absence of an effect accounted for the nonsignificant differences between CB and other groups (i.e. CB > RT ≈ ER ≈ C). Significant differences existed in isoinertial strength among the trained athletes (i.e. CB > RT > ER ≈ C), while isometric and isokinetic strength were not significantly different among any of the trained groups. However, the ES transformation of data demonstrated that large differences existed between resistance-trained groups and ER for isometric and isokinetic strength (i.e. CB ≈ RT > ER ≈ C). A statistically significant negative correlation (P < 0.001) was found between MHC type IIb isoforms and isoinertial strength index (r = − 0.68). The MHC type IIa proteins were positively related to all the strength measures considered (r = 0.51 – 0.61; P < 0.001). These data demonstrated different patterns of MHC isoform expression among the different groups of athletes and it is suggested that these differences on occasion may affect the expression of strength. Accepted: 24 September 1996     

Plasma Leptin,Plasma Zinc,and Plasma Copper Are Associated in Elite Female and Male Judo Athletes

The purpose of this study was to compare plasma leptin, plasma zinc, and plasma copper levels and their relationship in trained female and male judo athletes (n = 10 women; n = 8 men). Blood samples were obtained 24 h after training to measure plasma zinc, copper, and leptin levels. Subjects presented similar values to age (22 ± 2 years old), body mass index (24 ± 1 kg/m²), plasma zinc (17.2 ± 2 μmol/L), copper (12.5 ± 2 μmol/L), and leptin (5.6 ± 1.3 μg/L). However, height, total body mass, lean mass, fat mass, and sum of ten-skinfold thickness were higher in male than female. Plasma leptin was associated with sum of ten skinfolds in male (r = 0.91; p < 0.001) and female athletes (r = 0.84; p < 0.003). Plasma zinc was associated with leptin in males (r = 0.82; p < 0.05) while copper was associated with plasma leptin in females (r = 0.66; p < 0.05). Our results suggest that young judo athletes lost sex-related differences in leptin levels. Plasma zinc, plasma copper, and energy homeostasis may be involved in regulation of plasma leptin.     

Effects of Environmental Lead Pollution, Smoking, and Smokeless Tobacco (Maras Powder) Use on Blood Lead Level

One hundred sixty-four adult male volunteers (29 controls [Group 1] and 135 combi drivers) enrolled in the study. The combi drivers were divided into three groups as nonusers of either Maras powder or cigarette (Group 2), smokers (Group 3), and users of Maras powder (Group 4). Blood lead levels (BLLs) were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. BLL was detected as 2.8 ± 2.3 μg/dL in Group 1 (n = 29); however, it was 3.5 ± 1.6 μg/dL in Group 2 (n = 33), 3.8 ± 2.4 μg/dL in Group 3 (n = 62), and 3.9 ± 2.4 μg/dL in Group 4 (n = 40). BLL in Group 1 was found significantly lower than other groups (p < 0.05). The use of cigarette or Maras powder by the drivers did not give rise to a marked difference on the BLLs (p > 0.05). BLL of (combi) drivers was detected to be significantly higher than nondrivers; however, it was still under the hazardous level of 10 μg/dL announced by WHO. Although there are publications reporting that usage of tobacco increases the level of lead in blood, both smoking and use of Maras powder did not affect BLL markedly in our study. Poster presented (the abstract section published in Congress Book) at the 7th Congress of Turkish Family Physicians, 23–26 May 2006, Cesme-IZMIR, Turkey.     

Age and gender affect DNMT3a and DNMT3b expression in human liver

DNA methylation is catalyzed by a family of DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) including the maintenance enzyme DNMT 1 and de novo methyltransferases DNMT 3a and DNMT 3b. Elevated levels of DNMTs have been found in cancer cells and in several types of human tumors. A polymorphism found in DNMT3b has been associated with increased risk for several cancers. The factors influencing DNMT expression in human tissues have not been clearly determined. he present study examined TDNMT3a and DNMT3b levels in human liver tissue samples and compared the effect of ageing, cigarette smoking, and gender. DNMT3a and DNMT3b expression levels in the samples from older individuals (56–78 years, n = 28) were both significantly higher than those of the younger group (16–48 years, n = 27) (73.2 ± 3.4 vs 8.3 ± 2.8 and 56.1 ± 1.9 vs 17.5 ± 5.7, respectively; p < 0.05). Levels of DNMT3b in females were significantly higher than those in males (75.4 ± 2.2 vs 16.3 ± 4.7; p < 0.05); however, DNMT3a levels were similar for females and males (52.7 ± 2.7 vs 48.4 ± 2.0). Expression levels of DNMT3a and DNMT3b were similar in smokers and nonsmokers (58.1 ± 3.5 vs 60.8 ± 3.1 and 54.5 ± 2.3 vs 48.3 ± 1.8, respectively). Genotyping for DNMT3b (C→T) variant in this sample pool showed a frequency distribution of CC (41%), CT (50%), and TT (9%). The findings from this study suggest that ageing and gender may be important factors influencing DNA methylation status.