Coral community structure and risk assessment of high-latitude reefs at Sodwana Bay,South Africa

The importance of studying coral communities at different spatial scales is acknowledged in a growing volume of scientific literature, and principles of landscape ecology were thus used to elucidate the patterns in coral community structure on the high-latitude reefs in South Africa. These reefs are at the southernmost distribution of this fauna in Africa, are surprisingly species rich, and represent a biodiversity peak in this fauna south of the equator, regardless of the marginal nature of the environment. Coral community patterns were identified on and between the reefs at Sodwana Bay, justifying the grouping of reef areas in distinct zones. A number of landscape components were identified, ranging from the entire reef complex (10 km scale), individual reefs (1 km scales) and reef zones, to components that were separated using multivariate statistical analysis of transect data. These components transcended spatial similarities, e.g. the fore-reef on Five-mile Reef was not similar to the fore-reef on Seven-mile Reef, but was rather grouped with the reef flat on Two-mile Reef. This information was “translated” into an index of management intervention, based on risk assessment, and was generated using parameters that measure susceptibility to crown-of-thorns feeding, bleaching, diver-related damage and swell-induced breakage. We also assessed was the time elapsed since the last major disturbance and the proximity to the only boat launch site, a proxy measure of continuous disturbance. The risk assessment suggested that conservation management is most needed in the stable and “climax” coral communities that are usually characterised by a near-equal mix of hard and soft corals at maximal coral species diversity.     

A coral damage index and its application to diving sites in the Egyptian Red Sea

 A coral damage index (CDI) is provided, to screen sites to obtain a perspective on the extent and severity of physical damage to coral. Sites are listed as “hot spots” if in any transect the percent of broken coral colonies (BCC) is greater than or equal to 4% or if the percent cover of coral rubble (CR) is greater than or equal to 3%. To demonstrate its utility, the CDI is applied to a real-life management situation off Hurghada and Safaga, Egypt in the Red Sea. The extent of coral damage covered all four diving sites. Forty percent of all the transects were “hot spots” that required management action. Thirty-one percent of the 16 “hot spot” transects were identified by both broken coral and rubble criteria, 25% by only broken coral criterion and 44% by only coral rubble criterion of the CDI, suggesting that past breakage was responsible for most of the observed damage. Sixty-three percent of the “hot spot” transects were at 4 m depth versus 37% at 8 m depth, suggesting that most of the damage was caused by anchors dragging across the reef in shallow water. The severity of coral damage, reflected by CR, was the greatest at Small Giftun in transect 5 at 4 m depth (333% above the CDI). EI Fanous experienced the most severe degree of broken coral damage (325% above the CDI) at 8 m depth along transect 2. Estimates of the number of dives per year show diving carrying capacities for El Fanous, Gotta Abu Ramada, Ras Abu Soma and Small Giftun being exceeded by large amounts. The CDI can be used globally to; gauge the severity and extent of damage, focus managers on areas that need mooring buoys and associated dive site management programs, and provide a starting point from which to focus more detailed coral reef assessments and restoration programs. Accepted: 30 June 1999     

Shifting ecological baselines and the demise of Acropora cervicornis in the western North Atlantic and Caribbean Province: a Pleistocene perspective

 In recent years, marine scientists have become increasingly alarmed over the decline of live coral cover throughout the Caribbean and tropical western Atlantic region. The Holocene and Pleistocene fossil record of coral reefs from this region potentially provides a wealth of long-term ecologic information with which to assess the historical record of changes in shallow water coral reef communities. Before fossil data can be applied to the modern reef system, critical problems involving fossil preservation must be addressed. Moreover, it must be demonstrated that the classic reef coral zonation patterns described in the early days of coral reef ecology, and upon which “healthy” versus “unhealthy” reefs are determined, are themselves representative of reefs that existed prior to any human influence. To address these issues, we have conducted systematic censuses of life and death assemblages on modern “healthy” patch reefs in the Florida reef tract that conform to the classic Caribbean model of reef coral zonation, and a patch reef in the Bahamas that is currently undergoing a transition in coral dominance that is part of a greater Caribbean-wide phenomenon. Results were compared to censuses of ancient reef assemblages preserved in Pleistocene limestones in close proximity to each modern reef. We have determined that the Pleistocene fossil record of coral reefs may be used to calibrate an ecological baseline with which to compare modern reef assemblages, and suggest that the current and rapid decline of Acropora cervicornis observed on a Bahamian patch reef may be a unique event that contrasts with the long-term persistence of this taxon during Pleistocene and Holocene time. Accepted: 19 May 1998     

Thinking and managing outside the box: coalescing connectivity networks to build region-wide resilience in coral reef ecosystems

As the science of connectivity evolves, so too must the management of coral reefs. It is now clear that the spatial scale of disturbances to coral reef ecosystems is larger and the scale of larval connectivity is smaller than previously thought. This poses a challenge to the current focus of coral reef management, which often centers on the establishment of no-take reserves (NTRs) that in practice are often too small, scattered, or have low stakeholder compliance. Fished species are generally larger and more abundant in protected reserves, where their reproductive potential is often greater, yet documented demographic benefits of these reproductive gains outside reserves are modest at best. Small reproductive populations and limited dispersal of larvae play a role, as does the diminished receptivity to settling larvae of degraded habitats that can limit recruitment by more than 50%. For “demographic connectivity” to contribute to the resilience of coral reefs, it must function beyond the box of no-take reserves. Specifically, it must improve nursery habitats on or near reefs and enhance the reproductive output of ecologically important species throughout coral reef ecosystems. Special protection of ecologically important species (e.g., some herbivores in the Caribbean) and size-regulated fisheries that capitalize on the benefits of NTRs and maintain critical ecological functions are examples of measures that coalesce marine reserve effects and improve the resilience of coral reef ecosystems. Important too is the necessity of local involvement in the management process so that social costs and benefits are properly assessed, compliance increased and success stories accrued.     

The human side of reef management: a case study analysis of the socioeconomic framework of Montego Bay Marine Park

 This study furthers our understanding of the role of socioeconomics in coral reef management by demonstrating the importance, as well as means, of incorporating socioeconomic information into coral reef management. A case study analysis was made of the socioeconomic context of the three primary user groups in Montego Bay Marine Park, Jamaica: fishers, hoteliers and watersports operators. The primary means of data collection were document analysis, interviews with individuals representative of user groups, focus groups and participant observation. The results regarding user’s awareness, user groups’ relations with the managing agency, relations among and within user groups, resource use patterns, and sociocultural values demonstrate the need to: increase public awareness of the benefits of the Park, increase user awareness of Park management activities, increase user involvement in Park management, and develop intersectoral coordination. These findings provide useful guidance for future Park management and, in a more general context, illustrate the importance of socioeconomic assessments for reef management. Accepted: 20 July 1999     

Macroalgae, nutrients and phase shifts on coral reefs: scientific issues and management consequences for the Great Barrier Reef

 Degradation of coral reefs often involves a “phase shift” from abundant coral to abundant macroalgae. This paper critically reviews the roles of nutrient increases in such phase shifts. I conclude that nutrient overloads can contribute to reef degradation, but that they are unlikely to lead to phase shifts simply by enhancing algal growth rates and hence allowing overgrowth of corals, unless herbivory is unusually or artificially low. Concentrations of dissolved inorganic nutrients are poor indicators of reef status, and the concept of a simple threshold concentration that indicates eutrophication has little validity. I discuss the significance and consequences of these assessments for reef management, focusing on the Great Barrier Reef, and conclude with some specific recommendations, including protection of herbivorous fishes, minimisation of terrestrial runoff, and protection of coastal reefs. Accepted: 13 August 1999     

Coexistence of congeneric spiny lobsters on coral reefs: differences in conspecific aggregation patterns and their potential antipredator benefits

Den sharing by conspecific spiny lobsters (aggregation) is modulated by chemical attraction but may confer several, not necessarily mutually exclusive, antipredator byproduct benefits: a “guide effect”, which only benefits the individual attracted to a sheltered conspecific; a “dilution effect”, which reduces per-capita risk of predation simply through aggregation; or active “group defense”. Each potential benefit has a different set of predictors (relationships between aggregation and conspecific or predator densities), but conflicting results could suggest the simultaneous operation of more than one benefit. These predictions were tested for coexisting Panulirus guttatus (a reef-obligate) and Panulirus argus (a temporary reef-dweller) using data collected during 11 surveys on fixed sites over a coral reef in Mexico. P. guttatus greatly outnumbered P. argus, but P. argus showed a greater tendency to aggregate. All three benefits of den sharing operated for the more social P. argus, with “group defense” being of the most benefit for larger individuals, and the “guide” and “dilution” effects for smaller individuals recently immigrating into the reef habitat and sharing dens with larger conspecifics. P. guttatus did not display “group defense” and its aggregations appeared to be modulated by the interplay between attraction and aggressive behaviors. This species relied more on solitary crypticity, especially at larger sizes, but appeared to benefit from a “guide effect” at high conspecific densities. In experimental tanks, each species tended to aggregate when tested separately, but when tested jointly, aggregation among P. guttatus was significantly reduced. The experimental results reflect the differential patterns of aggregation between the fore-reef, where P. guttatus dominated, and the back-reef, where coexistence of both species was greater.     

Subtropical coral-reef associated sedimentary facies characterized by molluscs (Northern Bay of Safaga, Red Sea, Egypt)

Summary The shallow marine subtropical Northern Bay of Safaga is composed of a complex pattern of sedimentary facies that are generally rich in molluscs. Thirteen divertaken bulk-samples from various sites (reef slopes, sand between coral patches, muddy sand, mud, sandy seagrass, muddy seagrass, mangrove channel) at water depths ranging from shallow subtidal to 40m were investigated with regard to their mollusc fauna >1mm, which was separated into fragments and whole individuals. Fragments make up more than 88% of the total mollusc remains of the samples, and their proportions correspond to characteristics of the sedimentary facies. The whole individuals were differentiated into 622 taxa. The most common taxon,Rissoina cerithiiformis, represented more than 5% of the total mollusc content in the samples. The main part of the fauna consists of micromolluscs, including both small adults and juveniles. Based on the results of cluster-, correspondence-, and factor analyses the fauna was grouped into several associations, each characterizing a sedimentary facies: (1) “Rhinoclavis sordidula—Corbula erythraeensis-Pseudominolia nedyma association” characterizes mud. (2) “Microcirce sp.—Leptomyaria sp. association” characterizes muddy sand. (3)”Smaragdia spp.-Perrinia stellata—Anachis exilis—assemblage” characterizes sandy seagrass. (4) “Crenella striatissima—Rastafaria calypso—Cardiates-assemblage” characterizes muddy seagrass. (5) “Glycymeris spp.-Parvicardium sueziensis-Diala spp.-assemblage” characterizes sand between coral patches. (6) “Rissoina spp.-Triphoridae —Ostreoidea-assemblage” characterizes reef slopes. (7) “Potamides conicus—Siphonaria sp. 2—assemblage” characterizes the mangrove. The seagrass fauna is related to those of sand between coral patches and reef slopes with respect to gastropod assemblages, numbers of taxa and diversity indices, and to the muddy sand fauna on the basis of bivalve assemblages and feeding strategies of bivalves. The mangrove assemblage is related to those of sand between coral patches and the reef slope with respect to taxonomic composition and feeding strategies of bivalves, but has a strong relationship to those of the fine-grained sediments when considering diversity indices. Reef slope assemblages are closely related to that of sand between coral patches in all respects, except life habits of bivalves, which distincly separates the reef slope facies from all others.     

Holocene sea level changes and reef development in the southwestern Indian Ocean

 The sedimentological and chronological study of Holocene reef sequences recovered in drill cores through modern reefs of Mauritius, Réunion Island and Mayotte allows the reconstruction of sea level changes and reef growth patterns during the Holocene. The branching-coral facies systematically predominates over coral head facies throughout the Holocene reef sequences, and Acropora is the main frame builder among the branching forms. The reconstructed sea level curves, based both on identification of coral assemblages and on radiometric U/Th ages, are characterized by a rapid rise between 10 and 7.5 ky BP, followed by a clear inflection between 7.5 and 7 ky BP. The stabilization of sea level at its present level occurred between 2000 and 3000 years ago, probably without a higher sea level stand. Rates of vertical reef accretion range between 0.9 and 7 mm. y^-1. In Mauritius, and also probably in Réunion Island, the reef first tracked, then caught-up to sea level to reach an equilibrium position (“catch-up” growth), while the barrier reef margin off Mayotte has been able to keep pace with rising sea level (“keep-up” growth). Accepted: 1 March 1997     

Macroecological relationships between coral species�� traits and disease potential

Coral disease is a growing problem for reef corals and a primary driver of reef degradation. Incidences of coral disease on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) are increasing; however, our understanding of differences among species in their potential for contracting disease is poor. In this study, we integrate observations of coral disease on the GBR from the primary literature as well as morphological, ecological and biogeographical traits of coral species that have been hypothesised to influence “disease potential.” Most of the examined traits influence species’ disease potential when considered alone. However, when all traits are analysed together, diversity of predators, geographical range size and characteristic local abundance are the primary predictors of disease potential. Biases associated with species’ local abundance and phylogeny are tested but do not overpower relationships. This large-scale macroecological evaluation of coral disease provides insights into species-level traits that drive disease susceptibility.     

Climate change and coral reefs: Trojan horse or false prophecy?

Maynard et al. (Coral Reefs 27:745–749, 2008a) claim that much of the concern about the impacts of climate change on coral reefs has been “based on essentially untested assumptions regarding reefs and their capacity to cope with future climate change”. If correct, this claim has important implications for whether or not climate change represents the largest long-term threat to the sustainability of coral reefs, especially given their ad hominem argument that many coral reef scientists are guilty of “popularising worst-case scenarios” at the expense of truth. This article looks critically at the claims made by Maynard et al. (Coral Reefs 27:745–749, 2008a) and comes to a very different conclusion, with the thrust and veracity of their argument being called into question. Contrary to the fears of Grigg (Coral Reefs 11:183–186, 1992), who originally made reference to the Cassandra syndrome due to his concern about the sensationalisation of science, the proposition that coral reefs face enormous challenges from climate change and ocean acidification has and is being established through “careful experimentation, long-term monitoring and objective interpretation”. While this is reassuring, coral reef ecosystems continue to face major challenges from ocean warming and acidification. Given this, it is an imperative that scientists continue to maintain the rigour of their research and to communicate their conclusions as widely and clearly as possible. Given the shortage of time and the magnitude of the problem, there is little time to spare.     

Management histories of Sumilon and Apo Marine Reserves, Philippines, and their influence on national marine resource policy

 The histories of management of the Sumilon and Apo marine reserves in the Philippines provide a stark contrast. Both began with marine conservation and education programs at the community level, initiated by the Marine Laboratory of Silliman University in 1973 at Sumilon, and in 1976 at Apo. At both islands community support for the “no take” reserve concept evolved gradually, via perceived benefits of increased local fish yields and income from tourism. However, Sumilon reserve has been fished down twice (in 1984,1992), and was still being fished in December 1998. Apo reserve has been protected from fishing successfully for 16 y (1982–1998). The management histories of these two marine reserves are the longest and most detailed available for coral reefs. Scientific data spanning 1976–1993 for Sumilon and 1980–1993 for Apo have provided some of the best available evidence of the utility of such reserves as management tools in coral reef fisheries. At Sumilon, collapse of reserve protection in 1984, after 9.5 y of restrictions on fishing, led to significant declines in reef fisheries yields in areas adjacent to the reserve. At Apo, continuous protection from 1982 to 1993 has led to consistent build up of fish in the reserve and some evidence that local fish yields have increased. The unique time series of scientific data obtained from Sumilon and Apo islands are the result of their distinct management histories. The greater success of management at Apo was due to community support for the reserve concept being actively maintained for the past 16 y. Socio-political factors caused the level of community support for the Sumilon reserve to wax and wane over this period. Both case histories have had a profound effect on marine resource management in the Philippines. As marine reserve models they had substantial influence on the design of the National Integrated Protected Area System (NIPAS). Policy now encourages co-management between the National government and local communities, with a strong emphasis on decentralization of decision making and recognition of local territorial use rights in fisheries. Accepted: 14 May 1999     

Capturing the cornerstones of coral reef resilience: linking theory to practice

Coral reefs can undergo unexpected and dramatic changes in community composition, so called phase shifts. This can have profound consequences for ecosystem services upon which human welfare depends. Understanding of this behavior is in many aspects still in its infancy. Resilience has been argued to provide insurance against unforeseen ecosystem responses in the face of environmental change, and has become a prime goal for the management of coral reefs. However, diverse definitions of resilience can be found in the literature, making its meaning ambiguous. Several studies have used the term as a theoretical framework and concern regarding its practical applicability has been raised. Consequently, operationalizing theory to make resilience observable is an important task, particularly for policy makers and managers dealing with pressing environmental problems. Ultimately this requires some type of empirical assessments, something that has proven difficult due to the multidimensional nature of the concept. Biodiversity, spatial heterogeneity, and connectivity have been proposed as cornerstones of resilience as they may provide insurance against ecological uncertainty. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of the divergent uses of the concept and to propose empirical indicators of the cornerstones of coral reef resilience. These indicators include functional group approaches, the ratios of “good” and “bad” colonizers of space, measurements of spatial heterogeneity, and estimates of potential space availability against grazing capacity. The essence of these operational indicators of resilience is to use them as predictive tools to recognize vulnerability before disturbance occurs that may lead to abrupt phase shifts. Moving toward operationalizing resilience theory is imperative to the successful management of coral reefs in an increasingly disturbed and human-dominated environment. Communicating by Ecology Editor Professor Peter Mumby Order of authors 2–3 is alphabetic     

The Messinian reef complex of the Salento Peninsula (southern Italy): Stratigraphy, facies and paleoenvironmental interpretation

Summary An integrated study of the early Messinian reef complex cropping out along the eastern coast of the Salento Peninsula (southern Italy), including stratigraphy, facies analysis and paleoecological aspects, is here presented. Fourteen facies types belonging to three main facies associations (back reef and shelf, shelf-edge, slope) have been recognized. They document a wide spectrum of depositional environments, reef building organisms and growth fabrics, in response to depth and other environmental factors in different parts of the reef complex. The biotic structure of the reef is also described and discussed in detail. It consists of different types of reef building organisms and of their bioconstructions (mainlyPorites coral reefs,Halimeda bioherms and vermetidmicrobial “trottoirs”), that differ in composition and structure according to their position on the shelf edge-toslope profile. Results indicate that the reef complex of the Salento Peninsula has strong similarities with the typical early Messinian reefs of the Mediterranean region. However, the recognition of some peculiar features, i.e. the remarkable occurrence ofHalimeda bioherms and of vermetid-microbial “trottoirs”, gives new insights for better understanding reef patterns and development of the reef belt during the Late Miocene in the Mediterranean.     

Spatial Resilience of Coral Reefs

There have been several earlier studies that addressed the influence of natural disturbance regimes on coral reefs. Humans alter natural disturbance regimes, introduce new stressors, and modify background conditions of reefs. We focus on how coral reef ecosystems relate to disturbance in an increasingly human-dominated environment. The concept of ecosystem resilience—that is, the capacity of complex systems with multiple stable states to absorb disturbance, reorganize, and adapt to change—is central in this context. Instead of focusing on the recovery of certain species and populations within disturbed sites of individual reefs, we address spatial resilience—that is, the dynamic capacity of a reef matrix to reorganize and maintain ecosystem function following disturbance. The interplay between disturbance and ecosystem resilience is highlighted. We begin the identification of spatial sources of resilience in dynamic seascapes and exemplify and discuss the relation between “ecological memory” (biological legacies, mobile link species, and support areas) and functional diversity for seascape resilience. Managing for resilience in dynamic seascapes not only enhances the likelihood of conserving coral reefs, it also provides insurance to society by sustaining essential ecosystem services. Received 25 February 2000; accepted 31 January 2001.     

Scale-dependent spatial variability of coral assemblages along the Florida Reef Tract

 Coral reef communities of the western Atlantic have changed over the past two to three decades, but the magnitude and causes of this change remain controversial. Part of the problem is that small-scale patterns observed on individual reefs have been erroneously extrapolated to landscape and geographic scales. Understanding how reef coral assemblages vary through space is an essential prerequisite to devising sampling strategies to track the dynamics of coral reefs through time. In this paper we quantify variation in the cover of hard corals in spur-and-groove habitats (13–19 m depth) at spatial scales spanning five orders of magnitude along the Florida Reef Tract. A videographic sampling program was conducted to estimate variances in coral cover at the following hierarchical levels and corresponding spatial scales: (1) among transects within sites (0.01- to 0.1-km scale), (2) among sites within reefs (0.5- to 2-km scale), (3) among reefs within sectors of the reef tract (10- to 20-km scale), and (4) among sectors of the reef tract (50- to 100-km scale). Coral cover displayed low variability among transects within sites and among sites within reefs. This means that transects from a site adequately represented the variability of the spur-and-groove habitat of the reef as a whole. Variability among reefs within sectors was highly significant, compared with marginally significant variability among sectors. Estimates from an individual reef, therefore, did not adequately characterize nearby reefs, nor did those estimates sufficiently represent variability at the scale of the sector. The structure and composition of coral reef communities is probably determined by the interaction of multiple forcing functions operating on a variety of scales. Hierarchical analyses of coral assemblages from other geographic locations have detected high variability at scales different from those in the present study. A multiscale analysis should, therefore, precede any management decisions regarding large reef systems such as the Florida Reef Tract. Accepted: 19 July 1999     

Implementation of a small-scale “no-use zone” policy in a reef ecosystem: Eilat’s reef-lagoon six years later

 A small-scale, “no-use zone policy” has been implemented since 1992 at Eilat’s Coral Nature Reserve (Northern Red Sea). Six years later, the status of this closed-to-the-public reef area was compared to two nearby open-to-the-public sites, by evaluating populations of the scleractinian coral Stylophora pistillata in the strolling zone (0.5–1.5 m depth). Results from the open sites show that: (1) Live coral cover was three times lower than at the closed site; (2) numbers of small colonies (recruits) were significantly higher than in the closed site, while numbers of medium and large size colonies (geometric mean radius, rˉ>4.1 cm) per m² were significantly lower; (3) maximum rˉ was almost half than that in the closed site (9.6 cm versus 16.7 cm); (4) average number of broken colonies was three times higher than in the closed site; (5) significantly fewer colonies were partially dead. The latter result may reflect senescence processes in the large colonies of the closed site. Although colony breakage is reduced, it appears that the “no-use zone” policy is not sufficient for protecting small reef areas. The intense exploitation of Eilat’s coral reef by the tourist industry requires’ in addition to the conventional protective measures, the initiation of novel management solutions such as reef restoration by sexual and asexual recruits. Accepted: 11 August 1999     

Operationalizing resilience for adaptive coral reef management under global environmental change

Cumulative pressures from global climate and ocean change combined with multiple regional and local‐scale stressors pose fundamental challenges to coral reef managers worldwide. Understanding how cumulative stressors affect coral reef vulnerability is critical for successful reef conservation now and in the future. In this review, we present the case that strategically managing for increased ecological resilience (capacity for stress resistance and recovery) can reduce coral reef vulnerability (risk of net decline) up to a point. Specifically, we propose an operational framework for identifying effective management levers to enhance resilience and support management decisions that reduce reef vulnerability. Building on a system understanding of biological and ecological processes that drive resilience of coral reefs in different environmental and socio‐economic settings, we present an Adaptive Resilience‐Based management (ARBM) framework and suggest a set of guidelines for how and where resilience can be enhanced via management interventions. We argue that press‐type stressors (pollution, sedimentation, overfishing, ocean warming and acidification) are key threats to coral reef resilience by affecting processes underpinning resistance and recovery, while pulse‐type (acute) stressors (e.g. storms, bleaching events, crown‐of‐thorns starfish outbreaks) increase the demand for resilience. We apply the framework to a set of example problems for Caribbean and Indo‐Pacific reefs. A combined strategy of active risk reduction and resilience support is needed, informed by key management objectives, knowledge of reef ecosystem processes and consideration of environmental and social drivers. As climate change and ocean acidification erode the resilience and increase the vulnerability of coral reefs globally, successful adaptive management of coral reefs will become increasingly difficult. Given limited resources, on‐the‐ground solutions are likely to focus increasingly on actions that support resilience at finer spatial scales, and that are tightly linked to ecosystem goods and services.     

Tube-dwelling coral symbionts induce significant morphological change in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Montipora</Emphasis>

Several groups of tube-dwelling coral symbionts induce the formation of long, finger-like branches (“fingers”) on Montipora corals in the lagoons of Moorea, French Polynesia. We surveyed the prevalence and taxonomic diversity of these symbionts across the northern lagoons of Moorea, and documented the length and density of the finger structures on coral colonies. We found that the symbionts, which include gammarid amphipods and chaetopterid polychaete worms that were not previously known to associate with scleractinian corals, dramatically alter coral skeletal morphology, and may alter coral biology and reef ecology.