Fertilization in Torenia fournieri: Actin organization and nuclear behavior in the central cell and primary endosperm

Studies of the living embryo sacs of Torenia fournieri reveal that the actin cytoskeleton undergoes dramatic changes that correlate with nuclear migration within the central cell and the primary endosperm. Before pollination, actin filaments appear as short bundles randomly distributed in the cortex of the central cell. Two days after anthesis, they become organized into a distinct actin network. At this stage the secondary nucleus, which is located in the central region of the central cell, possesses an associated array of short actin filaments. Soon after pollination, the actin filaments become fragmented in the micropylar end and the secondary nucleus is located next to the egg apparatus. After fertilization, the primary endosperm nucleus moves away from the egg cell and actin filaments reorganize into a prominent network in the cytoplasm of the primary endosperm. Disruption of the actin cytoskeleton with latrunculin A and cytochalasin B indicates that actin is involved in the migration of the nucleus in the central cell. Our data also suggest that the dynamics of actin cytoskeleton may be responsible for the reorganization of the central cell and primary endosperm cytoplasm during fertilization.     

Isolation and osmotic relations of developing megagametophytes of Torenia fournieri

A new method is reported to isolate and handle living megagametophytes of Torenia fournieri at any developmental stage. The stages were determined using light microscopy and delimited by correlating floral morphological traits. When significant changes in the osmotic pressure were found during development, enzyme solutions contained different concentrations of osmoticum. Osmotic pressure is lowest in the megaspore, increases until the four-nucleate stage and then gradually decreases until complete embryo sac formation. In enzymatic solutions containing appropriate concentrations of osmoticum, protoplasts of megaspores, two-, four-, eight-nucleate embryo sacs, egg cells, synergids and central cells were successfully isolated. The living protoplasts were collected by micromanipulator, transferred into microdroplets and tested for viability. Received: 1 June 1998 / Revision accepted: 20 May 1999     

蓝猪耳受精生物学研究进展

蓝猪耳(Torenia fournieri L.)胚囊半裸露,在光学显微镜下能清楚观察到卵细胞、助细胞及部分中央细胞的形态结构,有助于原位观察卵细胞在受精前后的变化状态,被认为是研究被子植物体内受精机理的一种模式植物。综述了蓝猪耳的受精机理:花粉管定向进入胚囊的方式与机理、钙在受精过程中的作用、受精前后胚囊细胞骨架的动态变化。简要介绍了离体受精技术在蓝猪耳受精生物学中的发展应用。根据前人对蓝猪耳的研究成果并结合我们的研究,指出蓝猪耳在受精生物学中的应用,特别是借助离体受精技术平台,将具有更大的研究前景。     

Changes in actin organization in the living egg apparatus of Torenia fournieri during fertilization

Changes in actin organization in the living egg apparatus of Torenia fournieri from anthesis to post-fertilization have been investigated using microinjection and confocal microscopy. Our results revealed that the actin cytoskeleton displays dramatic changes in the egg apparatus and appears to coordinate the events of synergid degeneration, pollen tube arrival and gametic fusion during fertilization. Synergid degeneration occurs after anthesis and is accompanied by actin fragmentation and degradation. The actin cytoskeleton becomes organized with numerous aggregates in the chalazal end of the degenerating synergid, and some of the actin infiltrates into the intercellular gap between synergids, egg and central cell, forming a distinct actin band. An actin cap is present near the filiform apparatus after anthesis and disappears after pollen tube arrival. In the egg cell, actin filaments initially organize into a network and after pollination become fragmented into numerous patches in the cortex. These structures, along with the actin in the degenerating synergid and intercellular spaces form two distinct actin coronas during fertilization. The actin coronas vanish after gametic fusion. This is the first report of changes in actin organization in the living egg apparatus. The reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton in the egg apparatus and the presence of the actin coronas during fertilization suggest these events may be a necessary prelude to reception of the pollen tube and fusion of the male and female gametes. Received: 11 November 1999 / Accepted: 31 January 2000     

烟草与蓝猪耳胚胎发生中细胞表面三种凝集素受体的动态分布

以异硫氰酸甲酯(FITC)标记的三种凝集素(伴刀豆凝集素, 麦芽凝集素和大豆凝集素)为荧光探针,对烟草及蓝猪耳各发育时期胚细胞表面的凝集素受体进行了定位.结果显示胚柄基部荧光信号最强,沿胚柄单列细胞向胚体方向渐次减弱.以后随着胚柄功能的逐渐丧失而改变.同时,三种凝集素受体集中分布于胚柄细胞间的分裂面;凝集素受体在原胚中分布的另一个特点是聚集于新形成的细胞壁上.随着胚胎发育至分化阶段,凝集素受体则主要分布在胚体细胞的外切向壁上;三种凝集素受体的动态分布显示了凝集素受体的分布与细胞分裂之间的密切关系及其调控胚胎发育的作用.     

蓝猪耳精细胞的分离及两个精细胞群体的收集

蓝猪耳是二细胞型花粉,生殖细胞在花粉管中分裂形成两个精细胞。用体内-体外技术培养出花粉管后,将其置于爆破液中即可释放出花粉管内含物,其中包括两个精细胞和营养细胞。在显微镜下两个精细胞具二型性：体积较大的精细胞与花粉管的营养核相连,体积较小的精细胞只与大精细胞连接。两个精细胞之间的连接比较结实,需用微量酶液将两个精细胞分开。用显微操作仪就可分别挑选出两个精细胞群体,分别有上百个细胞。蓝猪耳精细胞的成功分离为利用蓝猪耳开展离体受精研究打下了良好的基础。这种单一纯化的精细胞群体的获得为用分子生物学方法区分两个精细胞的特异基因和蛋白质创造了条件。     

Symplastic communication between the central cell and the egg apparatus cells in the embryo sac of Torenia fournieri Lind. before and during fertilization

 Various membrane-impermeable, water-soluble fluorescent tracers with different molecular weights were microinjected into the central cell of the embryo sac of Torenia fournieri Lind. before and during fertilization. Before anthesis, there was high symplastic permeability between the central cell and the egg apparatus cells. In this stage, fluorescent tracers up to 10 kDa could pass from the central cell into the egg apparatus cells, whereas those with larger molecular weight remained in the central cell. As the embryo sac matured, symplastic permeability decreased such that 2 d after anthesis only tracers less than 3 kDa could spread from the central cell into the egg cell. There appeared to be no symplastic permeability between the primary endosperm and zygote after fertilization, since tracers as small as 521 Da could not pass into the zygote in about half of the microinjected embryo sacs. This is the first report of a change in cell-to-cell communication among the cells of the female germ unit before and after fertilization. Received: 16 December 1999 / Accepted: 4 February 2000     

Kinetics of double fertilization in Torenia fournieri based on direct observations of the naked embryo sac

Torenia fournieri Lind. has a naked embryo sac that protrudes from the micropyle. The precise time course of the entire process of double fertilization and the kinetics of fertilization events were determined in this species by the following methods: (i) without squashing, pollen tubes on the torn stylar canal were observed by fluorescence microscopy after staining with both 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) and aniline blue; and (ii) large numbers of living embryo sacs were observed directly by differential interference microscopy before and after fertilization. The pollen began to germinate 5 min after pollination and extruded pollen tubes which elongated at a constant rate of 2.3 mm · h⁻¹. At 4.0 h after pollination, the mitotic index of the generative cell within the pollen tube reached 88% and the two sperm cells were formed. Pollen tubes began to arrive at ovules 8.9 h after pollination and directly entered one of two synergids in the naked embryo sac. The time required for transport of sperm cells in the degenerated synergid was estimated statistically to be 1.9 ± 1.8 min for transport of the first cell and 7.4 ± 1.6 min for the second. In the nucleus of the fertilized egg cell, the male nucleolus began to emerge 10 h after pollination and the female nucleolus often decreased in size. The two nucleoli fused together prior to elongation of the zygote, which began 28 h after pollination. In the central cell, the secondary nucleus migrated to a region adjacent to the egg apparatus after pollination but prior to the arrival of the pollen tube. The primary endosperm nucleus rapidly returned to the inner region after fertilization. Prior to embryogenesis, the first division of the primary endosperm began about 15 h after pollination, at a defined site, to form the chalazal haustorium. Received: 24 October 1996 / Accepted: 13 March 1997     

Callose in the walls of mature embryo sac ofTorenia fournieri

Summary During the course of a fluorescence microscopic investigation on the extra-ovular micropylar portion of the embryo sacs ofTorenia fournieri Lind. (Scrophulariaceae) a callosic wall was found which surrounded it almost completely until the time of anthesis. In addition, the walls of young synergids and the filiform apparatus also showed callosic fluorescence. Treatments with PAS reaction revealed a PAS-positive substance filling up the locular cavity. Our attempts to induce fluorochromasia by employing fluorescein diacetate failed, indicating the low permeability of the callosic wall around the embryo sac. It is assumed that the callose wall around the embryo sac isolates the latter from the contents of the locular cavity whereas the callose in the synergid walls may represent an intermediate stage in the maturation of these walls; the filiform apparatus is mainly composed of callose.     

Changes in mitochondrial DNA levels during early embryogenesis in Torenia fournieri and Arabidopsis thaliana

Changes in the amount of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) have never been investigated in plant zygotes or early plant embryos due to the difficulty in isolating these cells, although such changes have been investigated in mammalian embryos. Using the single‐cell quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and laser confocal microscopy, we surveyed the changes in mtDNA levels during early embryogenesis in Torenia fournieri and Arabidopsis thaliana. In contrast with the amount of mtDNA in early mammalian embryos, which does not change, we found that mtDNA doubling occurred during zygotic development in T. fournieri and during two‐cell proembryo development in A. thaliana. These findings reveal that mtDNA doubling occurs during early embryogenesis in T. fournieri and A. thaliana, indicating that the dynamics of mtDNA in early plant embryos differs from that in early mammalian embryos.     

ZmEBE genes show a novel,continuous expression pattern in the central cell before fertilization and in specific domains of the resulting endosperm after fertilization

Two novel maize genes expressed specifically in the central cell of the female gametophyte and in two compartments of the endosperm (the basal endosperm transfer layer and the embryo surrounding region) were characterized. The ZmEBE (embryo sac/basal endosperm transfer layer/embryo surrounding region) genes were isolated by a differential display between the upper and the lower half of the kernel at 7 days after pollination (DAP). Sequence analysis revealed ORFs coding for two closely related proteins of 304 amino acids (ZmEBE-1) and 286 amino acids (ZmEBE-2). This size difference was due to differences in the splicing of the two genes. Both protein sequences showed significant similarity to the DUF239 family of Arabidopsis, a group of 22 proteins of unknown function, a small number of which are putative peptidases. ZmEBE genes had a novel cell type-specific expression pattern in the central cell before and the resulting endosperm after fertilization. RT-PCR analysis showed that the expression of both genes started before pollination in the central cell and continued in the kernel up to 20 DAP with a peak at 7 DAP. In situ hybridization revealed that the expression in the kernel was restricted to the basal transfer cell layer and the embryo surrounding region of the endosperm. The expression of ZmEBE-1 was at least 10 times lower than that of ZmEBE-2. Similarly to other genes expressed in the endosperm, ZmEBE-1 expression was subject to a parent-of-origin effect, while no such effect was detected in ZmEBE-2. Sequence analysis of upstream regions revealed a potential cis element of 33 bp repeated 7 times in ZmEBE-1 and ZmEBE-2 between positions -900 and -100. The 1.6 kb ZmEBE-2 upstream sequence containing the seven R7 elements was able to confer expression in the basal endosperm to a Gus reporter gene. These data indicate that ZmEBE is potentially involved in the early development of specialized domains of the endosperm and that this process is possibly already initiated in the central cell, which is at the origin of the endosperm.     

The synergid cell: attractor and acceptor of the pollen tube for double fertilization

In flowering plants, the egg cell is generally accompanied by two symmetrical cells, called synergid cells. As early as the 1870s, synergid cells were distinguished from egg cells and cooperation between synergid and egg cells was proposed; the term "synergid" is derived from the Greek "synergos," which means "working together." The accumulation of morphological and genetic data, and, more recently, the in vitro physiological analysis of the fertilization system of Torenia fournieri, have revealed that synergid cells work together with egg and central cells to accomplish double fertilization. This cooperation is of crucial importance in the attraction and acceptance of the pollen tube. In this review article, I focus on the physiological function and behavior of the synergid cell during the fertilization process. Received: December 20, 2001 / Accepted: December 27, 2001     

Sperm extract and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate induce cytosolic calcium rise in the central cell of Torenia fournieri

Microinjection of soluble sperm extract and Calcium Green-1 10 kDa-dextran conjugate (CG-1) into the mature central cell of Torenia fournieri induced a significant rise in cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i). The rise reached a maximum at 20 min after injection and then steadily declined. Nevertheless, a relatively high level of [Ca²⁺]_i was maintained even 40 min after injection. Microinjection of sperm extract of maize into Torenia central cells, however, did not trigger any increase in [Ca²⁺]_i, suggesting the possibility of distinct triggers in different species. We also injected caged inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (InsP₃) and caged cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR) into Torenia central cells to compare the pattern of Ca²⁺ rise induced by the sperm extract. The results showed that [Ca²⁺]_i elevation triggered by the release of InsP₃ after photolysis appears much faster than that induced by sperm extract. The increase in [Ca²⁺]_i reached a maximum at 70-80 s and dropped to the resting level within 300 s after photolysis. Microinjection of cADPR, however, did not induce any changes in [Ca²⁺]_i. The results indicate that sperm extract might contain factors triggering the release of Ca²⁺ in the central cell.     

Changes of calcium distribution in ovules ofTorenia fournieri during pollination and fertilization

Summary Calcium distribution in ovules ofTorenia fournieri was studied by electron energy loss spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopic visualization of calcium antimonate precipitates. High calcium levels were found in the ovules ofT. fournieri. Calcium is situated mainly in extracellular regions before fertilization, including the surface of embryo sac, in the mucilage, and among the cells of the egg apparatus. Intracellular calcium was found only in the nucellar cells around the embryo sac and in the epidermis of the central axis and funiculus. After pollination, a labyrinthine structure (coralloid-like cell wall formation) develops on the micropylar surfaces of the egg apparatus that contain high levels of calcium. Calcium levels increase in the degenerating synergid after the penetration of the pollen tube. Calcium-antimonate precipitates are abundant in vacuoles of the disrupted synergid and pollen tube cytoplasm.Abbreviations EELS electron energy loss spectroscopy - EDX energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis - LS labyrinthine structure     

Water deficit in developing endosperm of maize: cell division and nuclear DMA endoreduplication

Water deficit severely decreases maize (Zea mays L.) kernel growth; the effect is most pronounced in apical regions of ears. The capacity for accumulation of storage material in endosperms is thought to he partially determined by the extent of cell division and endoreduplication (post-mitotic nuclear DNA synthesis). To gain a better understanding of the regulatory mechanisms involved, we have examined the effect of water deficit on cellular development during the post-fertilization period. Greenhouse-grown maize was subjected to water-limited treatments during rapid cell division [from 1 to 10days after pollination (DAP)] or rapid endoreduplication (9 to 15 DAP). The number of nuclei and the nuclear DNA content were determined with flow cytometry. Water deficit from 1 to 10 DAP substantially decreased the rate of endosperm cell division in apical-region kernels, but had little effect on middle-region endosperms. Rewatcring did not allow cell division to recover in apical-region endosperms. Water deficit from 9 to 15 DAP also decreased cell division in apical-region endosperms. Endoreduplication was not affected by the late treatment in either region of the car, but was inhibited by the early treatment in the apical region. In particular, the proportion of nuclei entering higher DN A-content size classes was reduced. We conclude that cell division is highly responsive to water deficit, whereas endoreduplication is less so. We also conclude that the reduced proportion of nuclei entering higher DNA-content size classes during endoreduplication is indicative of multiple control points in the mitotic and endoreduplication cycles.     

Polar distribution dynamics of Con A binding sites in embryo sacs is temporally coupled by the fertilization process

The binding site distribution of concanavalin agglutinin (Con A) and wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) on embryo sacs at various developmental stages of Torenia fournieri L was studied by using a cooled Charge Coupled Device (CCD) and fluorescent Con A and WGA probes. The distribution patterns of Con A and WGA binding sites on embryo sacs changed during the fertilization process. The fluorescent signal indicating Con A binding sites was distributed evenly on the surface of the embryo sac wall before anthesis, was much denser on the micropylar end of the embryo sac wall and looked like a corona on the day of anthesis. After pollination, stronger fluorescence was present on the micropylar end of the embryo sac wall and the filiform apparatus (FA), showing an obvious polar distribution. When the pollen tube entered the embryo sac and reached a synergid, the fluorescence was still concentrated on the micropylar end and FA, and started to appear on the synergid. After fertilization, the polar distribution of the fluorescence gradually disappeared and an even distribution pattern was observed again on the embryo sac wall. These results revealed that the dynamic distribution of Con A binding sites was temporally coupled with the process of fertilization. WGA binding site distribution on the embryo sac was also investigated and showed a simple pattern but also regularly changed during the process of fertilization. The variation of these lectin binding sites during the fertilization process suggests that lectin binding site interactions may play a role in the process.     

Development and isolation of the male gametophyte of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Torenia fournieri</Emphasis>

New methods were developed to isolate the male gametophyte of Torenia fournieri at any developmental stage. The stages were defined by light microscopic studies and identified by correlating morphological traits of the flower buds. Enzyme solutions were used to isolate gametophytic cells. Preliminary studies were carried out to determine the components of the cell wall, and the optimal osmotic pressures of the appropriate enzyme solutions were adjusted to the different developmental stages. We managed to isolate diploid microsporocytes, haploid microspores, cells of young and mature pollen grains, and sperm cells from growing pollen tubes. Isolated protoplasts were collected in microcapillaries to prepare them for further studies.     

The endosperm development and the variations of structures of embryo sacs: unravelling the low fecundity of Zephyranthes candida (Amaryllidaceae)

To unravel a low fecundity in Zephyranthes candida (Lindl.) Herb., the development of the endosperm was studied using conventional paraplast section technique. The results show that the endosperm develops normally and comprises four major stages viz. syncytial, cellularization, differentiation and maturation. Both proliferation of antipodal cells and their close contact with the primary endosperm nucleus were observed, which should favor transportation of nutrients and accelerate development of embryo and endosperm. In Z. candida, at least four events of nuclear migration occurred during the course of embryogenesis and endosperm development. The 12.7% structurally and functionally abnormal ovules, along with the 22.3% collapsed and aborted ovules observed accounts for the low fecundity to some extent.     

The cortical actin cytoskeleton in a Dipteran embryo: Analysis of the spatial reorganization of F-actin aggregates during the early nuclear division cycles

Rhodamine phalloidin-staining was used to study the organization of the cortical actin cytoskeleton of the early Ceratitis capitata embryo. The dynamics of the actin aggregates and their changes in distribution during the formation of the syncytial blastoderm, were followed in detail. It was found that these aggregates formed a shell-like cluster around the interphase nuclei, and concentrated toward the poles of the mitotic apparatus when the nuclei divided. Laser scanning confocal microscopy revealed that aggregates not clustered at the poles of the mitotic apparatus were closely associated with fine fibers of a dense cytoplasmic network of actin filaments.