Kinetic Outlier Detection (KOD) in real-time PCR

Real-time PCR is becoming the method of choice for precise quantification of minute amounts of nucleic acids. For proper comparison of samples, almost all quantification methods assume similar PCR efficiencies in the exponential phase of the reaction. However, inhibition of PCR is common when working with biological samples and may invalidate the assumed similarity of PCR efficiencies. Here we present a statistical method, Kinetic Outlier Detection (KOD), to detect samples with dissimilar efficiencies. KOD is based on a comparison of PCR efficiency, estimated from the amplification curve of a test sample, with the mean PCR efficiency of samples in a training set. KOD is demonstrated and validated on samples with the same initial number of template molecules, where PCR is inhibited to various degrees by elevated concentrations of dNTP; and in detection of cDNA samples with an aberrant ratio of two genes. Translating the dissimilarity in efficiency to quantity, KOD identifies outliers that differ by 1.3–1.9-fold in their quantity from normal samples with a P-value of 0.05. This precision is higher than the minimal 2-fold difference in number of DNA molecules that real-time PCR usually aims to detect. Thus, KOD may be a useful tool for outlier detection in real-time PCR.     

Kinetics quality assessment for relative quantification by real-time PCR

For proper relative quantification by real-time PCR, compared samples should have similar PCR efficiencies. To test this prerequisite, we developed two quality tests: (i) adjustment of a test for kinetic outlier detection (KOD) to relative quantification; and (ii) comparison of the efficiency variance of test samples with the efficiency variance of samples with highly reproducible quantification. The tests were applied on relative quantification of two genes in 30 sets of 5 replicate samples (same treatment, different animals). Ten low-quality sets and 28 outliers were identified. The low-quality sets showed higher coefficient of variation (cv)% of DNA quantities in replicate experiments than high-quality sets (63% versus 26%; P = 0.001) and contained a higher proportion of outlying quantities (35% versus 5.9%; P = 0.001) when individual samples were detected by adjusted KOD. Outlier detection with adjusted KOD reduced the false detection of outliers by 2/3 compared with the previous, nonadjusted version of KOD (20% versus 5.9%; P = 0.001). We conclude that the presented tests can be used to assign technical reasons to outlying observations.     

癌症液体活检新思路：数字PCR检测DNA甲基化

癌症的早期诊断可提高患者生存率.微创采集人体体液的液体活检方法可避免传统肿瘤组织活检方法侵入性和异质性的问题,逐渐成为癌症诊断的新方式.另外,DNA甲基化作为预测癌症发生发展的标志物,引起了越来越多研究者的关注.但传统DNA甲基化的检测方法灵敏度不高,且容易出现假阳性.近年来,数字PCR技术因其超高的检测灵敏度和精确度、无需标准曲线即可进行核酸绝对定量检测的优势,被用于DNA甲基化的定量检测中.本文首先介绍了DNA甲基化与癌症发生发展的关系,总结了传统DNA甲基化检测方法及其在癌症临床诊断中的应用,阐述了基于不同核酸样本分散方法的数字PCR技术及其在微量DNA甲基化检测中的优势,总结了采用数字PCR技术检测癌症患者体液中DNA甲基化的具体步骤,列举了数字PCR技术在癌症DNA甲基化检测中的研究成果及应用进展,最后提出了数字PCR技术检测癌症DNA甲基化未来可能面临的挑战,并对数字PCR技术在癌症液体活检方面的应用前景进行了展望.     

数字PCR技术及其在检测领域的应用

随着分子生物学技术的不断发展和需求的多样化,用于核酸检测的各种PCR衍生技术应运而生。数字PCR是一种单分子水平的大规模分区扩增定量核酸检测技术。该技术以微腔室/微孔或微滴作为PCR反应器,无需校准物和绘制标准曲线即可实现对样品初始浓度的绝对定量,具有高灵敏度、高特异性和高精确度的特点。本文详细介绍了数字PCR的技术发展史、作用原理以及仪器平台类型,系统阐述了数字PCR在转基因检测、疾病诊断、环境及食品监管等方面的应用概况,并对该技术的应用前景进行了展望,以期对未来数字PCR的开发利用提供参考。     

Qualitative and Quantitative PCR Methods for Event-specific Detection of Genetically Modified Cotton Mon1445 and Mon531

Based on the DNA sequences of the junctions between recombinant and cotton genomic DNA of the two genetically modified (GM) cotton varieties, herbicide-tolerance Mon1445 and insect-resistant Mon531, event-specific primers and probes for qualitative and quantitative PCR detection for both GM cotton varieties were designed, and corresponding detection methods were developed. In qualitative PCR detection, the simplex and multiplex PCR detection systems were established and employed to identify Mon1445 and Mon531 from other GM cottons and crops. The limits of detection (LODs) of the simplex PCR were 0.05% for both Mon1445 and Mon531 using 100 ng DNA templates in one reaction, and the LOD of multiplex PCR analysis was 0.1%. For further quantitative detection using TaqMan real-time PCR systems for Mon1445 and Mon531, one plasmid pMD-ECS, used as reference molecule was constructed, which contained the quantitative amplified fragments of Mon1445, Mon531, and cotton endogenous reference gene. The limits of quantification (LOQs) of Mon1445 and Mon531 event-specific PCR systems using plasmid pMD-ECS as reference molecule were 10 copies, and the quantification range was from 0.03 to 100% in 100 ng of the DNA template for one reaction. Thereafter, five mixed cotton samples containing 0, 0.5, 0.9, 3 and 5% Mon1445 or Mon531 were quantified using established real-time PCR systems to evaluate the accuracy and precision of the developed real-time PCR detection systems. The accuracy expressed as bias varied from 1.33 to 8.89% for tested Mon1445 cotton samples, and from 2.67 to 6.80% for Mon531. The precision expressed as relative standard deviations (RSD) were different from 1.13 to 30.00% for Mon1445 cotton, and from 1.27 to 24.68% for Mon531. The range of RSD was similar to other laboratory results (25%). Concluded from above results, we believed that the established event-specific qualitative and quantitative PCR systems for Mon1445 and Mon531 in this study are acceptable and suitable for GM cotton identification and quantification.     

A method for quantification of absolute amounts of nucleic acids by (RT)–PCR and a new mathematical model for data analysis

Accurate quantification of nucleic acids by competitive (RT)–PCR requires a valid internal standard, a reference for data normalization and an adequate mathematical model for data analysis. We report here an effective procedure for the generation of homologous RNA internal standards and a strategy for synthesizing and using a reference target RNA in quantification of absolute amounts of nucleic acids. Further, a new mathematical model describing the general kinetic features of competitive PCR was developed. The model extends the validity of quantitative competitive (RT)–PCR beyond the exponential phase. The new method eliminates the errors arising from different amplification efficiencies of the co-amplified sequences and from heteroduplex formation in the system. The high accuracy (relative error <2%) is comparable to the recently developed real time detection 5′-nuclease PCR. Also, corresponding computer software has been devised for practical data analysis.     

New real-time quantitative PCR procedure for quantification of bifidobacteria in human fecal samples

The application of a real-time quantitative PCR method (5' nuclease assay), based on the use of a probe labeled at its 5' end with a stable, fluorescent lanthanide chelate, for the quantification of human fecal bifidobacteria was evaluated. The specificities of the primers and the primer-probe combination were evaluated by conventional PCR and real-time PCR, respectively. The results obtained by real-time PCR were compared with those obtained by fluorescent in situ hybridization, the current gold standard for intestinal microbiota quantification. In general, a good correlation between the two methods was observed. In order to determine the detection limit and the accuracy of the real-time PCR procedure, germfree rat feces were spiked with known amounts of bifidobacteria and analyzed by both methods. The detection limit of the method used in this study was found to be about 5 x 10(4) cells per g of feces. Both methods, real-time PCR and fluorescent in situ hybridization, led to an accurate quantification of the spiked samples with high levels of bifidobacteria, but real-time PCR was more accurate for samples with low levels. We conclude that the real-time PCR procedure described here is a specific, accurate, rapid, and easy method for the quantification of bifidobacteria in feces.     

Direct PCR amplification of various modified DNAs having amino acids: convenient preparation of DNA libraries with high-potential activities for in vitro selection

We synthesized modified 2'-deoxyuridine triphosphates bearing amino acids at the C5 position and investigated their substrate properties for KOD Dash DNA polymerase during polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR using C5-modified dUTP having an amino acyl group (arginyl, histidyl, lysyl, phenylalanyl, tryptophanyl, leucyl, prolyl, glutaminyl, seryl, O-benzyl seryl or threonyl group) gave the corresponding full-length PCR products in good yield. Although dUTP analogues bearing aspartyl, glutamyl or cysteinyl were found to be poor substrates for PCR catalyzed by KOD Dash DNA polymerase, optimization of the reaction conditions resulted in substantial generation of full-length product. In the case of reaction using dUTP analogue having a cysteinyl group, addition of a reducing agent improved the reaction yield. Thus, PCRs using KOD Dash DNA polymerase together with amino acyl dUTP provide convenient and efficient preparation of various modified DNA libraries with potential protein-like activities.     

A method for quantification of absolute amounts of nucleic acids by (RT)-PCR and a new mathematical model for data analysis

Accurate quantification of nucleic acids by competitive (RT)-PCR requires a valid internal standard, a reference for data normalization and an adequate mathematical model for data analysis. We report here an effective procedure for the generation of homologous RNA internal standards and a strategy for synthesizing and using a reference target RNA in quantification of absolute amounts of nucleic acids. Further, a new mathematical model describing the general kinetic features of competitive PCR was developed. The model extends the validity of quantitative competitive (RT)-PCR beyond the exponential phase. The new method eliminates the errors arising from different amplification efficiencies of the co-amplified sequences and from heteroduplex formation in the system. The high accuracy (relative error <2%) is comparable to the recently developed real time detection 5'-nuclease PCR. Also, corresponding computer software has been devised for practical data analysis.     

Fungal molecular diagnostics: a mini review

Conventional methods to identify fungi have often relied on identification of disease symptoms, isolation and culturing of environmental organisms, and laboratory identification by morphology and biochemical tests. Although these methods are still fundamental there is an increasing move towards molecular diagnostics of fungi in all fields. In this review, some of the molecular approaches to fungal diagnostics based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA/RNA probe technology are discussed. This includes several technological advances in PCR-based methods for the detection, identification and quantification of fungi including real-time PCR which has been successfully used to provide rapid, quantitative data on fungal species from environmental samples. PCR and probe based methods have provided new tools for the enumeration of fungal species, but it is still necessary to combine the new technology with more conventional methods to gain a fuller understanding of interactions occurring in the environment. Since its introduction in the mid 1980's PCR has provided many molecular diagnostic tools, some of which are discussed within this review, and with the advances in micro-array technology and real-time PCR methods the future is bright for the development of accurate, quantitative diagnostic tools that can provide information not only on individual fungal species but also on whole communities.     

A two-step quantitative pathogen detection system based on capillary electrophoresis

Rapid identification of bacterial pathogens is important for patient management and initiation of appropriate antibiotic therapy in the early stages of infection. Among the several techniques, capillary electrophoresis single-strand conformation polymorphism (CE-SSCP) analysis combined with small subunit rRNA gene-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has come into the spotlight owing to its sensitivity, resolution, and reproducibility. Despite the advantages of the method, the design of PCR primers and optimization of multiplex PCR conditions remain to be studied so that as many pathogens as possible can be analyzed in a single run. Here we describe a novel two-step technique involving multiplex PCR pathogen detection by CE-SSCP analysis followed by singleplex PCR pathogen quantification by CE-SSCP. Specific PCR primers were designed for optimal separation of their products by CE-SSCP based on molecular weight. PCR conditions were then optimized for multiplex analysis of the targets. Subsequently, detected pathogens were quantified by PCR with specific primers. Eight clinically important strains were simultaneously identified under the optimized conditions. Each individual pathogen was then quantified at a level of sensitivity of tens of cells per milliliter. In conclusion, the two-step pathogen detection method based on CE-SSCP described here allows for sensitive detection of pathogens by multiplex PCR (first step) and quantification by specific PCR (second step). The results illustrate the potential of the method in clinical applications.     

DNA extraction from bovine faeces: current status and future trends

There is an increasing interest in the detection and enumeration of micro‐organisms pathogenic for human and present in bovine faeces. This interest is because pollution of the environment by animal faeces may affect the safety of food and of drinking or recreational water. Detection and quantification of microbial pathogens carried out using DNA extracted from the faecal matrix are affected by the quality and the quantity of the DNA extracts, which are critical factors that limit the accuracy and sensitivity of molecular studies. This review compares published methods on DNA extraction from bovine faeces, focusing on the extent to which the success of DNA amplification is affected by issues related to the faeces. Following a general discussion on the DNA extraction methods used for faeces, we focus particularly on issues related to the faecal environment itself. The objective is to identify information that can be used to improve the sensitivity of those PCR methods used after direct DNA extraction.     

New Real-Time Quantitative PCR Procedure for Quantification of Bifidobacteria in Human Fecal Samples

The application of a real-time quantitative PCR method (5′ nuclease assay), based on the use of a probe labeled at its 5′ end with a stable, fluorescent lanthanide chelate, for the quantification of human fecal bifidobacteria was evaluated. The specificities of the primers and the primer-probe combination were evaluated by conventional PCR and real-time PCR, respectively. The results obtained by real-time PCR were compared with those obtained by fluorescent in situ hybridization, the current gold standard for intestinal microbiota quantification. In general, a good correlation between the two methods was observed. In order to determine the detection limit and the accuracy of the real-time PCR procedure, germfree rat feces were spiked with known amounts of bifidobacteria and analyzed by both methods. The detection limit of the method used in this study was found to be about 5 × 10⁴ cells per g of feces. Both methods, real-time PCR and fluorescent in situ hybridization, led to an accurate quantification of the spiked samples with high levels of bifidobacteria, but real-time PCR was more accurate for samples with low levels. We conclude that the real-time PCR procedure described here is a specific, accurate, rapid, and easy method for the quantification of bifidobacteria in feces.     

转Cry1Ab基因水稻分子特征及其特异性PCR检测方法

转Cry1Ab基因水稻Bt01为一种新型的转基因水稻,文章首先利用Southern blotting验证了外源基因Cry1Ab转入了Bt01中,且为单拷贝,再利用TAIL-PCR方法获得了其插入位点信息,根据获得的Bt01的5′端插入位点序列,设计了相应的定性与定量PCR检测体系的引物及探针,实验结果显示,定性PCR检测体系的最低检测极限(LOD)为10个拷贝,定量PCR检测体系的LOD为5拷贝,最低定量极限(LOQ)为10拷贝。同时为了验证建立的定量PCR体系的准确性,利用该体系检测已知转基因水稻Bt01含量分别为3%和0.5%的样品,定量结果分别为2.7%和0.47%。研究结果表明,该转化体特异性定性与定量检测方法具有高度的特异性和良好的灵敏性,为转基因水稻Bt01的身份识别和检测提供了有效的方法。     

PCR detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in environmental samples—a review of published protocols and current developments

Since 1991 more than 30 PCR protocols have been published, which show a potential to replace the current microscopic detection method for Cryptosporidium parvum in environmental samples and food. This review provides a synoptic comparison of these protocols with respect to the following features: isolation and purification of oocysts from tested matrices, elimination of free DNA, viability and infectivity assessment, release of nucleic acids, nucleic acid extraction, type of PCR (PCR, RT-PCR, internal-standard-PCR, in situ PCR, TaqMan-PCR), primary product detection, additional specificity control, secondary product detection, reported sensitivity, cross-reaction with other Cryptosporidium species, and target and sequence information such as amplicon length, primer sequences, multiple copy target, presence of strain-specific differences in the amplicon, GenBank accession numbers and gene function. The results demonstrate that problems like PCR inhibition, viability assessment, and the requirement of an extreme sensitivity have been solved. PCR assays would be most valuable to control presence-absence standards in defined matrix volumes, and the setup of such standards would very much contribute to a rapid introduction of this awaited technology into routine monitoring of environmental, water and food samples, and to a further standardization of the various protocols. It can be expected that satisfactory solutions for quantification will be found for a growing number of PCR-based assays. Systematic field evaluation and interlaboratory studies will complement our present knowledge of these methods in the near future. Received 5 May 1998/ Accepted in revised form 7 September 1998     

Quantitative analysis of nucleic acids--the last few years of progress

DNA and RNA quantifications are widely used in biological and biomedical research. In the last ten years, many technologies have been developed to enable automated and high-throughput analyses. In this review, we first give a brief overview of how DNA and RNA quantifications are carried out. Then, five technologies (microarrays, SAGE, differential display, real time PCR and real competitive PCR) are introduced, with an emphasis on how these technologies can be applied and what their limitations are. The technologies are also evaluated in terms of a few key aspects of nucleic acids quantification such as accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, cost and throughput.     

实时定量PCR技术及其应用

实时定量PCR(Real—time Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction,RQ—PCR)技术是20世纪90年代中期发展起来的一种新型核酸定量技术。该技术具有实时监测、快速、灵敏、精确等特点,是对原有PCR技术的革新,扩大了PCR的应用范围。本文综述了RQ—PCR技术的原理、RQ—PCR仪、RQ—PCR实时定量检测系统及其应用。     

Evaluation of DNA extraction methods from mouse stomachs for the quantification of H. pylori by real-time PCR

Real-time PCR methods have recently been developed for the quantification of Helicobacter pylori from infected mouse stomachs. However, the extent to which results is affected by the efficiency of different methods of DNA extraction and the degree of inhibition of the subsequent PCR have largely been ignored. In this study, mouse stomachs were processed using two homogenisation methods: complete disruption using a blender and homogenisation by vortexing with glass beads. Each procedure was followed by DNA purification by three different protocols-two commercially available kits-Qiagen DNA Mini Tissue kit and Qiagen Stool Kit and a phenol-chloroform extraction method. PCR inhibition was assessed by screening for mouse DNA and for H. pylori DNA after spiking stomach extracts with H. pylori 16S rDNA. PCR inhibition was found to be lower in DNA samples prepared by vortexing and processed by column kits. Validation of procedures was performed by quantification of H. pylori DNA and mouse DNA in infected mouse stomachs. Homogenisation with glass beads followed by the Qiagen Tissue kit was found to be the most suitable protocol combining high extraction and detection efficiency of 16S rDNA in the presence of a mouse DNA background.