Forecasting of the flowering time for wild species observed at Guidonia, central Italy

It is well known that forecasting the flowering time of wild vegetation is useful for various sectors of human activity, particularly for all agricultural practices. Therefore, continuing previous work by Cenci et al., we will present here three new phenoclimatic models of the flowering time for a set of wild species, based on an original data sample of flowering dates for more than 500 species, observed at Guidonia (42° N in central Italy) by Montelucci in the period 1960–1982. However, on applying the bootstrap technique to each species sample to check its basic statistical parameters, we found only about 200 to have data samples with an approximately Gaussian distribution. Eventually only 57 species (subdivided into eight monthly subsets from February to September) were used to formulate the models satisfactorily. The flowering date (represented by the z variable), is expressed in terms of two variables x and y by a nonlinear equation of the form z=αx ^β +γy. The x variable represents either the degree-day sum (in model 1), or the daily-maximum-temperature sum (in model 2), or the daily-global-insolation sum (in model 3), while y for all three models corresponds to the rainy-day sum. Note that all summations involved in the computation of the variables x and y take place over a certain period of time (preceding the flowering phase), which is a parameter to be determined by the fitting procedure. This parameter, together with the threshold temperature (needed to compute the degree-days in model 1), represents the two implicit parameters of the process, thus the total number of parameters (including these last two) becomes respectively, five for model 1, and four for the other two models. The preliminary results of this work were reported at the XVI International Botanical Congress (1–7 August 1999, St. Louis, Missouri USA). Received: 4 November 1999 / Revised: 10 May 2000 / Accepted: 10 May 2000     

Plant Phenology in a Cloud Forest on the Island of Maui,Hawaii1

We recorded the times of flowering, fruiting, and leafing for ten native canopy and subcanopy trees and shrubs (monthly from December 1994 through December 1997) in a montane cloud forest with relatively aseasonal rainfall on the island of Maui, Hawaii. These species represented the great majority of individual woody plants at the site. Flowers and fruits were available in the community year–round; however, all species exhibited annual patterns of flowering, and four species showed annual patterns of fruiting while the rest fruited in supra–annual patterns. Many species had protracted flowering or fruiting peaks, and some bore small numbers of flowers or fruit year‐round. Most species flowered in a monthly peak mainly between May and August, corresponding to the period of greatest solar irradiance and marginally higher temperatures. Fruit ripening followed at varying intervals. In contrast, the heaviest flowering occurred between November and March, resulting from bloom of the dominant tree, Metrosideros polymorpha. At the highest elevations, Metrosideros flowering was heaviest during September, but peak flowering of lower elevation trees occurred in late fall and winter. Two forms of this species differed in their temporal and spatial patterns of flowering. For M. polymorpha var. polymorpha and var. incana, bloom peaked annually between November and January; however, for M. polymorpha var. glaberrima, flowering peaked from April through July, with an earlier secondary peak in January.     

Phenology in central Europe – differences and trends of spring phenophases in urban and rural areas

In order to examine the impacts of both large-scale and small-scale climate changes (urban climate effect) on the development of plants, long-term observations of four spring phenophases from ten central European regions (Hamburg, Berlin, Cologne, Frankfurt, Munich, Prague, Vienna, Zurich, Basle and Chur) were analysed. The objective of this study was to identify and compare the differences in the starting dates of the pre-spring phenophases, the beginning of flowering of the snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) and forsythia (Forsythia sp.), and of the full-spring phenophases, the beginning of flowering of the sweet cherry (Prunus avium) and apple (Malus domestica), in urban and rural areas. The results indicate that, despite regional differences, in nearly all cases the species studied flower earlier in urbanised areas than in the corresponding rural areas. The forcing in urban areas was about 4 days for the pre-spring phenophases and about 2 days for the full-spring phenophases. The analysis of trends for the period from 1951 to 1995 showed tendencies towards an earlier flowering in all regions, but only 22% were significant at the 5% level. The trends for the period from 1980 to 1995 were much stronger for all regions and phases: the pre-spring phenophases on average became earlier by 13.9 days/decade in the urban areas and 15.3 days/decade in the rural areas, while the full-spring phenophases were 6.7 days earlier/decade in the urban areas and 9.1 days/decade earlier in the rural areas. Thus rural areas showed a higher trend towards an earlier flowering than did urban areas for the period from 1980 to 1995. However, these trends, especially for the pre-spring phenophases, turned out to be extremely variable. Received: 21 October 1999 / Revised: 5 April 2000 / Accepted: 25 April 2000     

Pollen flow and the intrapopulation genetic structure of Heloniopsis orientalis on the forest floor as determined using microsatellite markers

Pollenflow, seedling dynamics, and the genetic structure of Heloniopsis orientalis (Thunb.) C. Tanaka (Liliaceae) were analyzed as part of an effort to understand the reproduction system of perennial herbs foundon the forest floor by means of microsatellite markers. It was possible to assign paternity to all offspring within this population by paternity analysis. Although no ordinary pollinator visits were observed during the flowering period, effective pollen flow occurred throughout the population. It appears that low frequencies of pollinator visits nonetheless permitted adequate pollen flow. Studies of seedling dynamics suggested restricted recruitment by means of seed. Gene flow in the present population seemed to depend mainly on pollen. Local genetic structuring caused by seeds falling near the mother plant and by vegetative reproduction was detected by means of spatial autocorrelation. Three main modes of development of genetic structure were found for this species: (1) asexual reproduction by adventitious buds, which was dominant (up to 20 cm from the parent plants); (2) sexual reproduction by seeds that fell from flower stalks (up to 60 cm from the parent plants); and (3) pollen that dispersed over a wide area (throughout the population). Received: 13 January 2000 / Accepted: 21 March 2000     

Flowering phenology of a palm community in a central Amazon forest

The flowering phenology of 27 taxa of palms in a lowland moist forest in the central Amazon was recorded over a 40 month period. Phenological data were transformed into measures, of synchrony, regularity, and duration. Flowering was observed at all times of year and there was no correlation with rainfall either for the current month or for any monthly lag interval. The 27 taxa were divided into three pollination groups—weevil, bee/fly, or beetle—based on their behavior at anthesis. Phenology was significantly correlated with pollination groups. Weevilpollinated palms had higher synchrony and shorter duration of flowering than other groups. Bee/fly-pollinated palms had lower synchrony and longer duration of flowering. The beetle-pollinated palms were intermediate between the two other groups. Seasonal regularity of flowering was similar in all three groups. We suggest that, at least inBactris, taxa exhibit staggered flowering.     

Aerobiological survey of Alnus pollen in Ourense (N.W. Iberian Peninsula), 1993–2000

Alnus pollen is one of the major components of the aeropalynological spectra during winters in Ourense, with maximum values registered in January and February. This work analyses the intra- and interannual variations within the period 1993–2000, when a volumetric Hirst spore-trap (LANZONI VPPS 2000) was in continuous operation. Statistically significant differences between periods 1996/97 (with a few rainy days), 1998/99, and all the others were observed. The relationships between atmosphere pollen content and the most important meteorological parameters within the same period were studied by means of correlation analysis. Temperature was the most important factor explaining the presence of Alnus pollen in the air. A Scheffe's test was carried out before the correlation analysis to establish years corresponding to the same statistical population. The results obtained from both tests were used for a regression analysis to establish the prediction patterns for this taxon. Even when a negative correlation coefficient was presented, the influence of this parameter did not decline. Previous temperatures in the main pollination period, however, were a determinant factor predicting the onset and intensity of Alnus flowering.     

Shifts in the semidian rhythm of flowering do determine night-break timing and critical night length in Pharbitis nil

There is a semidian (≈12 h) rhythm in the flowering response of the short-day plant Pharbitis nil Choisy following 90 min exposure to either far-red light/darkness or a temperature drop (27 °C to 12 °C) given at various times in constant conditions before an inductive dark period. This semidian rhythmic response to the temperature-drop pretreatments in the light is also evident through the inductive dark period without change of phase. Furthermore, those pretreatments which increase flowering also advance the time of maximum sensitivity to red light (R) interruptions of the dark period by up to 1.5 h and shorten the critical night length. Conversely, pretreatments which reduce flowering delay the time of maximum R inhibition by up to 1.5 h and increase the critical night length by the same amount. However the phase of a circadian rhythm of flowering response had no effect on either the time of maximum R inhibition or the critical night length. Thus, the semidian rhythm determines both the time of maximum R inhibition and the critical night length in Pharbitis. Received: 8 November 1997 / Accepted: 7 January 1998     

An atmospheric pollen survey conducted during the winter in Minneapolis,Minnesota, USA

Few atmospheric pollen surveys have been conducted during the winter months in cities located in the midlatitudes. The purpose of this present investigation was to study pollen conditions during the winter in Minneapolis, Minnesota, a city that experiences cold temperatures and develops substantial snow cover. One hundred thirty‐three atmospheric samples were collected with a Rotorod Sampler between 11 October 1995 and 1 May 1996. Pollen was recovered in 109 samples, including 27 of the 40 samples collected in December and January. Twenty‐five types of pollen were observed during the study period; Cupressaceae (cedar/juniper), Ambrosia (ragweed) and Artemisia (sage/sagebrush) grains were most abundant during the period when local plants were not flowering. The weed pollen was most likely contributed by local sources, perhaps by dried flowers on dead plants. In contrast, the Cupressaceae pollen recovered in October and the early winter months is thought to have originated in the southern United States where several species of Juniperus flower late in the year. This study demonstrated that low but measurable concentrations of pollen occurred in the atmosphere throughout the winter.     

Patterns of vegetative growth and reproduction in relation to branch orders: the plant as a spatially structured population

The patterns of vegetative growth and reproduction in relation to orders of terminal branches were examined in the evergreen woody plant, Eurya japonica. The branch order number was determined centrifugally. The trunk was given order number 1; branches issuing directly from the trunk were order 2; branches growing on order 2 branches were order 3, and so on. The results of this study show the differential patterns of vegetative growth and reproduction in relation to the branch orders. Lower-order shoots of terminal branches grew more, but produced few flowers. On the other hand, for the higher-order terminal branches, shoot growth was very limited but flowering was more intense. The results show that a tree can be interpreted not as a mere population of equivalent modules but as a spatially structured population. Thus, it is essential to consider the position of modules within the branch system when patterns of vegetative growth and reproduction are examined. It is hypothesized that the difference in the opportunity cost in relation to the branch orders is the main cause of the spatial structure for patterns of vegetative growth and reproduction. Furthermore, for same-order terminal branches, current-year shoot elongation was independent of flowering intensity. These results suggest that this species only invests resources in reproduction that are surplus to its requirements for the functions associated with survival, such as growth and/or storage. Received: 22 July 1999 / Accepted: 12 January 2000     

Basta tolerance as a selectable and screening marker for transgenic plants of Norway spruce

The bar gene conferring resistance to the herbicide Basta (containing phosphinothricin) was transferred to embryogenic cultures of Picea abies by particle bombardment and transformants were selected on Basta medium. In total, 83 9-month-old transgenic plants of Picea abies from six transformed sublines were analysed for continued tolerance to Basta. PCR analysis showed that the bar gene was present in all transformed plants but not in the control plants. Northern blot analysis showed differences in expression level among plants from the same subline as well as among sublines. A simple biotest for screening for Basta tolerance based on the colour change of detached needles induced by Basta was developed. The tolerance to Basta varied among the plants from different sublines. Needles from four of the sublines were resistant to 100 mg l⁻¹ phosphinothricin, a concentration inducing yellowing in control needles, while plants from the other two sublines were on average two to four times as resistant as untransformed control plants. The biotest enables rapid semi-quantitative monitoring for continued transgene expression in long-lived tree species. Received: 21 October 1999 / Revision received: 24 January 2000 / Accepted: 24 January 2000     

基于数字标本探究绿绒蒿属植物花期的变化

近年来,随着全球气温的明显升高,气候变化引起的全球变暖受到人们的广泛关注.气候变暖会使植物物候发生改变,花期的变化能够直观地反映出植物对周围环境的适应,尤其是高山植物对气候变化更为敏感,因此探究高山植物的花期更具有代表性.为了解植物在气候变暖背景下花期的变化特征,并制定出合理的植物保护措施,该文以典型的高山植物绿绒蒿属...     

The potential of ISSR-PCR primer-pair combinations for genetic linkage analysis using the seasonal flowering locus in Fragaria as a model

ISSR-PCR has been widely used for genetic distance analysis and DNA fingerprinting but has been less well utilised for mapping purposes. A key limitation lies in the small number of primer designs available to generate useful polymorphisms. In this study, the potential of paired combinations of ISSR primers is evaluated using a test cross mapping population of 168 BC₁ individuals between Fragaria vesca f. vesca and a closely related line F. vesca f. semperflorens. Ten ISSR primers and all possible pairwise combinations between them were used to generate markers potentially linked to the locus controlling seasonal flowering in F. vesca. Band profiles of individual primers were found to be highly reproducible for band position and intensity, and only minor variation was noted in band intensity (but not in position) between different constituent mixes of primer-pair combinations. Overall, ISSR primers used in isolation produced 85 markers of which only five were specific to F. vesca. None of these markers were linked to the seasonal flowering locus. In contrast, the primer-pair combina-tions yielded 493 markers, including 14 specific to F. vesca. These markers included two located within 2.2 cM of the seasonality locus. The strengths and limitations of using pairs of ISSR primers in combination for mapping and other genetic analyses are briefly explored. Received: 12 October 2000 / Accepted: 19 January 2001     

Variation in the phenology and abundance of flowering by native and exotic plants in subalpine meadows

The timing and abundance of flower production is important to the reproductive success of angiosperms as well as pollinators and floral and seed herbivores. Exotic plants often compete with native plants for space and limiting resources, potentially altering community floral dynamics. We used observations and a biomass-removal experiment to explore the effects of an invasive exotic flowering plant, Linaria vulgaris, on community and individual species flowering phenology and abundance in subalpine meadows in Colorado, USA. Invasion by L. vulgaris was associated with a shift in both the timing and abundance of community flowering. Invaded plant communities exhibited depressed flowering by 67% early in the season relative to uninvaded communities, but invaded sites produced 7.6 times more flowers than uninvaded sites once L. vulgaris began flowering. This increase in flowers at the end of the season was driven primarily by prolific flowering of L. vulgaris. We also found lower richness and evenness of resident flowering species in invaded plots during the period of L. vulgaris flowering. At the species level, a common native species (Potentilla pulcherrima) produced 71% fewer flowers in invaded relative to uninvaded plots, and the species had reduced duration of flowering in invaded relative to uninvaded sites. This result suggests that L. vulgaris does not simply alter the flowering of subordinate species but also the flowering of an individual common species in the plant community. We then used observational data to explore the relationship between L. vulgaris density and resident floral production but found only partial evidence that higher densities of L. vulgaris were associated with stronger effects on resident floral production. Taken together, results suggest that a dominant invasive plant can affect community and individual-species flowering.     

浅裂剪秋萝和丝瓣剪秋萝传粉特性的初步研究

为了探究浅裂剪秋萝(Lychnis cognata)和丝瓣剪秋萝(L. wilfordii)的传粉生物学特征, 从花部特征、花粉呈现规律及传粉者访花行为等方面对其开展研究。结果表明, 2种剪秋萝的花期持续时间相近, 但浅裂剪秋萝始花日期较早; 二者花部特征虽有显著差异, 但主要传粉者均为碧翠凤蝶(Papilio bianor)。在开花过程中, 2种剪秋萝的雄蕊均分2批呈现花粉, 第1批雄蕊的花粉生活力在开花后第1天达到最大值, 而第2批雄蕊在第2天达到最大值。浅裂剪秋萝的柱头可授性在开花后第5天最强, 而丝瓣剪秋萝在开花后第4天最强, 花粉生活力和柱头活性的时间差异表明两物种均为雌雄异熟。两物种共同的传粉者碧翠凤蝶对浅裂剪秋萝的访花高峰出现在上午8:00-11:00, 而对丝瓣剪秋萝的访花高峰出现在上午11:00-12:00, 导致访花高峰出现差异的主要影响因素可能是生境和花药开裂时间。     

The need for speed. I. Fast reactions and myelinated axons in copepods

A rapid and powerful escape response decreases predation risk in planktonic copepods. Calanoid copepods are sensitive to small and brief hydrodynamic disturbances: they respond with multiple nerve impulses to a vibrating sphere. Some species, such as Pleuromamma xiphias and Labidocera madurae, respond with very large spikes (1–4 mV), whereas maximum spike heights are an order of magnitude smaller in others, such as Undinula vulgaris and Neocalanus gracilis. A comparative study of the escape responses showed that all species reacted within 10 ms of the initiation of a hydrodynamic stimulus. However, U. vulgaris and N. gracilis had significantly shorter reaction times (minimum reaction times: 1.5 ms and 1.6 ms) than the other two, P. xiphias (6.6 ms) and L. madurae (3.1 ms). Examination of the first antenna and the central nervous system using transmission electron microscopy revealed extensive myelination of sensory and motor axons in the two species with the shorter reaction times. Axons of the other two species resembled typical crustacean unmyelinated fibers. A survey of 20 calanoids revealed that none of the species in two of the more ancient superfamilies possessed myelin, but myelination was present in the species from three more recently-evolved superfamilies. Accepted: 8 January 2000     

31种木本植物开花物候与系统发育的关系

植物物候通常被认为是由环境因素,如降水、温度和日照长度所决定,然而环境因素是否是物候唯一的决定因素仍然存在很大争议。谱系结构表征了植物在进化上的顺序,该发育时序是否对物候产生影响,当前仍然未知。在调查2016年春季新疆乌鲁木齐市最常见的31种木本植物的初始开花时间、败花时间和开花持续时间的基础上,通过分析植物开花物候的分布特征、开花物候在乔灌木间的差别、以及植物谱系距离与开花物候距离间的关系,试图揭示植物的开花物候和物种谱系(进化)顺序间的关系。结果表明:(1)新疆乌鲁木齐市31种木本植物的初始开花时间为4月18日±9d、败花时间为5月5日±12d、开花持续时间为(16±8)d;(2)乔木的初始开花时间和败花时间的标准差分别均低于灌木,乔木开花物候相对灌木更稳定;(3)乔木的初始开花和败花时间均显著早于灌木(P0.05),但开花持续时间在两者间未有显著性差异(P0.05);(3)31种木本植物间的初始开花时间距离、败花时间距离和开花持续时间距离均与物种谱系距离存在显著线性回归关系(P0.05)。综上可知:乔灌木在垂直空间上的分化使得木本植物的开花物候在植物生活型间存在不同。对植物的开花物候,除已被证明的降水、温度和日照长度等环境因素的影响外,物种进化顺序也可能造成了它在植物种间、时间和空间上的变异。     

Molecular approach to describing a seed‐based food web: the post‐dispersal granivore community of an invasive plant

Communities of post‐dispersal granivores can shape the density and dispersion of exotic plants and invasive weeds, yet plant ecologists have a limited perception of the relative trophic linkages between a seed species and members of its granivore community. Dandelion seeds marked with Rabbit IgG were disseminated into replicated plots in the recipient habitat (South Dakota) and the native range (Czech Republic). Arthropods were collected in pitfall traps, and their guts were searched for the protein marker using enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Seed dishes were placed in each plot, and dandelion seed removal rates were measured. The entire experiment was repeated five times over the dandelion flowering period. Gut analysis revealed that approximately 22% of specimens tested positive for the seed marker. A more diverse granivore community had trophic linkages to seeds than has been previously realized under field conditions. This community included taxa such as isopods, millipedes, weevils, rove beetles, and caterpillars, in addition to the traditionally recognized ants, crickets, and carabid beetles. Rarefaction and Chao analysis estimated approximately 16 and 27 species in the granivore communities of the Czech Republic and South Dakota, respectively. Synthesis: Generalist granivore communities are diverse and polyphagous, and are clearly important as a form of biotic resistance to invasive and weedy plants. These granivore communities can be managed to limit population growth of these pests.     

A new species of the genus Malakichthys (Perciformes: Acropomatidae) from Japan

A new acropomatid, Malakichthys barbatus, is described on the basis of 27 specimens (76.3–180.1 mm SL) collected from Suruga Bay to Tosa Bay, along the southern Pacific coast of Japan. The new species is unique in having numerous pairs of spines on the chin (a pair of spines in other congeners). Although the new species resembles M. elegans in having a slender body (the depth less than 35% SL), the former is further distinguishable from the latter in having a slender first proximal radial of the anal fin with no hollow (broad with a cone-shaped hollow in M. elegans), 43–48 lateral line scales (48–51), modally 21 gill rakers on the lower arm (modally 23), and a dark blotch on the opercle (no remarkable blotch). Received: July 2, 2000 / Revised: September 27, 2000 / Accepted: January 30, 2001     

Responses of pre‐dispersal seed predators to sequential flowering of Dipterocarps in Malaysia

Many species of Dipterocarpaceae and other plant families reproduce synchronously at irregular, multi‐year intervals in Southeast Asian forests. These community‐wide general flowering events are thought to facilitate seed survival through satiation of generalist seed predators. During a general flowering event, closely related Shorea species (Dipterocarpaceae) stagger their flowering times by several weeks, which may minimize cross pollination and interspecific competition for pollinators. Generalist, pre‐dispersal seed predators might also track flowering hosts and influence predator satiation. We addressed the question of whether pre‐dispersal seed predation differed between early and late flowering Shorea species by monitoring flowering, fruiting and seed predation intensity over two general flowering events at the Pasoh Research Forest, Malaysia. Pre‐dispersal insect seed predators killed up to 63 percent of developing seeds, with Nanophyes shoreae, a weevil that feeds on immature seeds being the most important predator for all Shorea species. This weevil caused significantly greater pre‐dispersal seed predation in earlier flowering species. Long larval development time precluded oviposition by adults that emerged from the earliest flowering Shorea on the final flowering Shorea. In contrast, larvae of weevils that feed on mature seeds before seed dispersal (Alcidodes spp.), appeared in seeds of all Shorea species almost simultaneously. We conclude that general flowering events have the potential to satiate post‐dispersal seed predators and pre‐dispersal seed predators of mature fruit, but are less effective at satiating pre‐dispersal predators of immature fruit attacking early flowering species.