Molecular cloning and expression analysis of two <Emphasis Type="Italic">FAD2</Emphasis> genes from chia (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Salvia hispanica</Emphasis>)

FATTY ACID DESATURASE 2 (FAD2, EC 1.3.1.35), also known as delta-12 oleate desaturase, is a key enzyme for linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid biosynthesis. Chia (Salvia hispanica) seeds contain the highest known proportion of α-linolenic acid in any plant sources. In this study, two full-length FAD2 genes, named as ShFAD2-1 and ShFAD2-2, were isolated from S. hispanica based on RACE method. Both ShFAD2-1 and ShFAD2-2 proteins possess strong transmembrane helices, three histidine motifs and a C-terminal ER-located signal (YNNKL). Phylogenetic analysis showed that both ShFAD2-1 and ShFAD2-2 are grouped with constitutive plant FAD2s. Heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae indicated that ShFAD2-1 and ShFAD2-2 genes both encode a bio-functional delta-12 oleate desaturase. ShFAD2-2 was mainly expressed in flowers and early-stage seeds while ShFAD2-1 expression was almost constitutive in different organs. qRT-PCR results demonstrated that ShFAD2-1 and ShFAD2-2 show a cold-induced and heat-repressed expression pattern, whereas they also were differentially up-regulated or repressed by other abiotic stresses. This is the first cloning and function characterization of FAD2 from S. hispanica, which can provide insights into molecular mechanism of high ALA traits of S. hispanica and enrich our understanding of the roles of FAD2 genes in various abiotic stresses.     

Evidence for genetic erosion of a California native tree, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Platanus racemosa</Emphasis>, via recent,ongoing introgressive hybridization with an introduced ornamental species

When non-native, genetically diverse species are introduced, hybridization with native congeners may erode the genetic composition of local species, perhaps even resulting in extinction. While such events may lead to adverse consequences at the community and ecosystem level, few studies exist on ecologically important tree species. In the genus Platanus, introgressive hybridization is widespread, and one common ornamental species, introduced to California during the late 19th century, is itself a hybrid. Our microsatellite analysis of more than 400 Platanus trees from north-central California reveals a complex pattern of invasion and hybridization in an age-structured population. By using size as a proxy for age, we have demonstrated that the Platanus population of north-central California has recently gained genetic diversity and effective population size. Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) and genetic admixture analysis (STRUCTURE) both reveal a strong differentiation of genotypes into two main genetic clusters, with a large number of admixed genotypes. One of the genetic clusters identified is heavily biased towards younger trees, including samples from locations with relatively recently planted ornamental trees likely to be P. × hispanica (formerly known as P. × acerifolia). We conclude that the two genetic clusters correspond to the native P. racemosa and the introduced invasive hybrid species P. × hispanica. Additional hybridization between the invasive ornamental and the native species has occurred in California, and recent hybrid trees are more likely to be younger than trees without admixture. Our findings suggest that the observed increase in genetic diversity among California Platanus is due to rampant ongoing introgression, which may be threatening the continued genetic distinctiveness of the native species. This is cause for concern from a conservation standpoint, due to a direct loss of genetic distinctiveness, and a potential reduction in habitat value of associated species.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lecanicillium muscarium</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Adalia bipunctata</Emphasis> combination for the control of black bean aphid<Emphasis Type="Italic">, Aphis fabae</Emphasis>

The predator Adalia bipunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and the entomopathogenic fungus Lecanicillium muscarium, have been considered as potential biological control against aphids. While it can be difficult to achieve a high control level of Aphis fabae Scopoli (Hemiptera: Aphididae) using only a single beneficial agent, the research presented here aimed to determine the interaction between L. muscarium and A. bipunctata potential for control against A. fabae. Lecanicillium muscarium was found to cause about 30% mortality in A. bipunctata and with a reduction in feeding by about 15%. However, co-application of A. bipunctata and L. muscarium can cause an addititive effect in reducing aphid populations, resulting in about 90% reduction in aphid populations compared with control treatment. Thus, these two biocontrol agents have the potential to be complementary. This research study demonstrates that it is possible to combine A. bipunctata with L. muscarium to provide a sustainable method for management of A. fabae on broad bean cropping system and that field studies are required.     

Expression analysis on mycoparasitism related genes during antagonism of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trichoderma</Emphasis> with <Emphasis Type="Italic">Colletotrichum falcatum</Emphasis> causing red rot in sugarcane

Present study was aimed to select a suitable Trichoderma isolate as candidate antagonist based on its efficacy in producing cell wall degrading enzymes (CWDEs), its mycoparasitism activity and expression of related genes against the red rot pathogen caused by Colletotrichum falcatum in sugarcane. For which, six different isolates of Trichoderma selected from our earlier studies (T. harzianum, T. asperullum) were evaluated based on their capability in releasing cell wall degrading enzymes individually and during antagonism with C. falcatum in dual plate. Amongst T. harzianum (T20) exhibited the greatest mycoparasitic potential against the C. falcatum, by producing higher concentration of  CWDEs viz., chitinase and β-1, 3-glucanase, slightly lower amounts of cellulase and protease with significant reduction in polygalacturonase produced by pathogen. Further microscopic observation on interaction of C. falcatum with the selected isolate of T. harzianum (T20) exhibited the mycoparasitic activity of antagonist over pathogen in dual culture and inhibition of C. falcatum pathogenesis in detached sugarcane leaves. In addition, expression pattern of eight genes coding various enzymes involved in mycoparasitism by T. harzianum over C. falcatum were analyzed using qRT-PCR in vitro and on sugarcane leaves. In in vitro interactions, five genes of  cell wall degrading enzymes viz., chitinase (chit33), endochitinase (endo42), β-1, 3-glucanase (glu), exochitinase 1 (exc1), exochitinase 2 (exc2), were upregulated during and after contact as compared to before contact, while three genes related with proteases such as alkaline proteinase (prb1), trypsin-like protease (Pra1), subtilin-like serine protease (ssp), genes were upregulated during the contact with C. falcatum and slightly down regulated after contact. In detached leaves, seven genes were potentially upregulated except subtilin-like serine protease, which was down regulated during interaction of C. falcatum and T. harzianum as compared to T. harzianum inoculation alone. All these biochemical and molecular results confirm the efficacy of T. harzianum (T20) against C. falcatum and justify the right selection of candidate antagonist for our further studies on identification of antifungal genes/proteins against C. falcatum in sugarcane.     

Acaricidal active fractions from acetone extract of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aloe vera</Emphasis> L. against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tetranychus cinnabarinus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Panonychus citri</Emphasis>

This study aimed to isolate acaricidal active fractions from acetone extract of Aloe vera L. and investigate the toxicity of these fractions against Tetranychus cinnabarinus (T. cinnabarinus) and Panonychus citri (P. citri). Acetone extract of A. vera L. was isolated by immersing in acetone for 72 h, and diverse fractions were fractionated by column chromatography. The acaricidal activity of each fractions was evaluated by corrected mortality of T. cinnabarinus through slide-dip bioassay. The 8th and 13th fractions of acetone extract with good acaricidal activity were indentified by LC/MS, and the toxicity of these two fractions to T. cinnabarinus and P. citri was identified by regression analysis. Acetone extract of A. vera L. exhibited obvious acaricidal activity, from which a total of 18 fractions were isolated. The 8th and 13th fractions with strong acaricidal activity against T. cinnabarinus were identified to be 3-O-alpha-d-mannopyranosyl-d-mannopyranose (OAMM) and aloe emodin. When compared with spirodiclofen, both OAMM and aloe emodin exhibited higher toxicity to T. cinnabarinus, while only OAMM exhibited a higher toxicity to P. citri (P < 0.05). OAMM and aloe emodin isolated from acetone extract of A. vera L. exhibited obvious acaricidal activities against T. cinnabarinus and P. citri.     

In silico design of polycationic antimicrobial peptides active against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Staphylococcus aureus</Emphasis>

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have the potential to become valuable antimicrobial drugs in the coming years, since they offer wide spectrum of action, rapid bactericidal activity, and low probability for resistance development in comparison with traditional antibiotics. The search and improvement of methodologies for discovering new AMPs to treat resistant bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are needed for further development of antimicrobial products. In this work, the software Peptide ID 1.0^® was used to find new antimicrobial peptide candidates encrypted in proteins, considering the physicochemical parameters characteristics of AMPs such as positive net charge, hydrophobicity, and sequence length, among others. From the selected protein fragments, new AMPs were designed after conservative and semi-conservative modifications and amidation of the C-terminal region. In vitro studies of the antimicrobial activity of the newly designed peptides showed that two peptides, P3-B and P3-C, were active against P. aeruginosa Escherichia coli and A. baumannii with low minimum inhibitory concentrations. Peptide P3-C was also active against K. pneumoniae and S. aureus. Furthermore, bactericidal activity and information on the possible mechanisms of action are described according to the scanning electron microscopy studies.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Aeromonas</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Plesiomonas</Emphasis> species from scarlet ibis (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Eudocimus ruber</Emphasis>) and their environment: monitoring antimicrobial susceptibility and virulence

The present study aimed at evaluating the role of captive scarlet ibises (Eudocimus ruber) and their environment as reservoirs of Aeromonas spp. and Plesiomonas spp., and analyzing the in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility and virulence of the recovered bacterial isolates. Thus, non-lactose and weak-lactose fermenting, oxidase positive Gram-negative bacilli were recovered from cloacal samples (n = 30) of scarlet ibises kept in a conservational facility and from water samples (n = 30) from their environment. Then, the antimicrobial susceptibility, hemolytic activity and biofilm production of the recovered Aeromonas spp. and Plesiomonas shigelloides strains were assessed. In addition, the virulence-associated genes of Aeromonas spp. were detected. Ten Aeromonas veronii bv. sobria, 2 Aeromonas hydrophila complex and 10 P. shigelloides were recovered. Intermediate susceptibility to piperacillin-tazobactam and cefepime was observed in 2 Aeromonas spp. and 1 P. shigelloides, respectively, and resistance to gentamicin was observed in 4 P. shigelloides. The automated susceptibility analysis revealed resistance to piperacillin-tazobactam and meropenem among Aeromonas spp. and intermediate susceptibility to gentamicin among P. shigelloides. All Aeromonas isolates presented hemolytic activity, while 3 P. shigelloides were non-hemolytic. All Aeromonas spp. and 3/10 P. shigelloides were biofilm-producers, at 28 °C, while 10 Aeromonas spp. and 6/10 P. shigelloides produced biofilms, at 37 °C. The most prevalent virulence genes of Aeromonas spp. were asa1 and ascV. Scarlet ibises and their environment harbour potentially pathogenic bacteria, thus requiring monitoring and measures to prevent contamination of humans and other animals.     

Anti-viral Activities of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oroxylum indicum</Emphasis> Extracts on Chikungunya Virus Infection

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a re-emerging mosquito-borne alphavirus that poses a threat to human worldwide. Driven by the lack of approved medication and vaccination, research on anti-Chikungunya agents has received great attention. In an effort to determine potential inhibitor of CHIKV, this study aimed at investigating the potential anti-viral activity of Oroxylum indicum extracts towards CHIKV-infected Vero cells. The virucidal, pre- and post-treatment effects of O. indicum were evaluated, using the maximum non-toxic dose of O. indicum methanol and aqueous extracts as determined by cytotoxicity assay. The viral inhibitory effect was assessed by the morphological changes of Vero cells and further confirmed by plaque assay. Both methanol and aqueous extracts of O. indicum had similar cytotoxicity in Vero cells. Interestingly, the virucidal effect of O. indicum aqueous extract revealed a significant reduction on the viral titre (p < 0.05). The prophylactic effect of aqueous extract was demonstrated when the pre-treated cells exhibited a significant anti-CHIKV activity (p < 0.05). However, methanol extract of this plant exerted an anti-viral activity against CHIKV only to a certain extent. Therefore, the aqueous extract of this plant has a potential to inhibit the virus and acts as prophylactic agent against CHIKV. Further studies however are needed to substantiate the finding and to determine the important compound of this plant as well as the mechanism of action in treating CHIKV infection.     

Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of Bacteriocinogenic Enterococci Against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Clostridium botulinum</Emphasis>

The present study aimed to characterize Enterococcus faecalis (n = ?6) and Enterococcus faecium (n = 1) isolated from healthy chickens to find a novel perspective probiotic candidate that antagonize Clostridium botulinum types A, B, D, and E. The isolated enterococci were characterized based on phenotypic properties, PCR, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF). The virulence determinants including hemolytic activity on blood agar, gelatinase activity, sensitivity to vancomycin, and presence of gelatinase (gelE) and enterococcal surface protein (esp) virulence genes were investigated. Also, the presence of enterocin structural genes enterocin A, enterocin B, enterocin P, enterocin L50A/B, bacteriocin 31, enterocin AS48, enterocin 1071A/1071B, and enterocin 96 were assessed using PCR. Lastly, the antagonistic effect of the selected Enterococcus spp. on the growth of C. botulinum types A, B, D, and E was studied. The obtained results showed that four out of six E. faecalis and one E. faecium proved to be free from the tested virulence markers. All tested enterococci strains exhibited more than one of the tested enterocin. Interestingly, E. faecalis and E. faecium significantly restrained the growth of C. botulinum types A, B, D, and E. In conclusion, although, the data presented showed that bacteriocinogenic Enterococcus strains lacking of virulence determinants could be potentially used as a probiotic candidate against C. botulinum in vitro; however, further investigations are still urgently required to verify the beneficial effects of the tested Enterococcus spp. in vivo.     

Substantial,and significant,expansion of ant hosts range for <Emphasis Type="Italic">Myrmicinosporidium</Emphasis> Hölldobler, 1933 (Fungi)

Six new genera, three tribes and one subfamily are added to the list of known hosts for the enigmatic endoparasitic fungus Myrmicinosporidium Hölldobler. Aphaenogaster senilis, Cataglyphis hispanica, Crematogaster auberti, Goniomma hispanicum, Messor barbarus, Tapinoma nigerrimum and Tapinoma simrothi were collected from olive groves and detected as infected with spores of the fungus. Pheidole pallidula and Tetramorium semilaeve were also found to be infected. The finding of seven hosts (seven genera, three subfamilies) from a single olive grove is an evidence that the fungus has a phylogenetically wide host spectrum and is, therefore, a generalist microparasite. Portugal is also a new country for Myrmicinosporidium.     

Molecular characterization of <Emphasis Type="Italic">bmyC</Emphasis> gene of the mosquito pupicidal bacteria, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus amyloliquefaciens</Emphasis> (VCRC B483) and in silico analysis of bacillomycin D synthetase C protein

A strain of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (VCRC B483) exhibiting mosquito pupicidal, keratinase and antimicrobial activities was isolated from mangrove forest ecosystem of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Molecular characterization of the strain showed the presence of lipopeptide encoding bmyC gene. Phylogenetic tree based on protein sequence of this gene exhibited homology with mycosubtilin synthetase of Bacilus atropheus and Iturin synthetase of Bacillus subtilis and B. amyloliquefaciens. This is the first report on the evolutionary conservation of amino acids concerned with the function and structure of bmyC protein of B. amyloliquefaciens. The presence of valine at the 1197th position in our strain was found to be unique and different from the existing strains of B. subtilis and B. amyloliquefaciens. Molecular modelling studies revealed significant changes in the structure of epimerization domain of the bmyC protein with A1197V variation. Crude metabolite of this strain exhibited antifungal activity against Fusarium sp. and Carvularia sp.     

Allelopathic Potential of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Koelreuteria bipinnata</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">integrifoliola</Emphasis> on Germination of Three Turf Grasses

Allelopathy is very important for the scientific disposition of garden plants. To understand the allelopathic potential of Koelreuteria bipinnata Franch. var. integrifoliola, the germination of Agrostis tenuis Sibth., Festuca arundinacea Schreb. and Lolium perenne L. were determined under laboratory conditions. The results showed that root, stem and leaf aqueous extracts of K. bipinnata var. integrifoliola had allelopathic effects on all three turf grasses, and the allelopathic activity varied according to extract concentrations, test species, and extract sources. Lower extract concentrations did not affect or promoted the germination and initial seedling growth of turf grasses, but the highest concentrations almost had inhibitory effect. The order of allelopathic potentials of the three organs on germination of these receptors was root < stem < leaf. And at the highest concentration of leaf extract, the most strongly inhibition was found in A. tenuis, followed by F. arundinaces and then L. perenne. In addition, according to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis, the allelopathic potential compounds and their abundance in root, stem and leaf were obviously different. Therefore, the allelopathic compounds may responsible for allelopathy of K. bipinnata var. integrifoliola. These findings suggested that more attention should be paid to the leaf of K. bipinnata var. integrifoliola for the relative higher allelopathic effects.     

Habitat Management to Reduce Human Exposure to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trypanosoma cruzi</Emphasis> and Western Conenose Bugs (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Triatoma protracta</Emphasis>)

Chagas disease, which manifests as cardiomyopathy and severe gastrointestinal dysfunction, is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, a vector-borne parasite. In California, the vector Triatoma protracta frequently colonizes woodrat (Neotoma spp.) lodges, but may also invade nearby residences, feeding upon humans and creating the dual risk of bite-induced anaphylaxis and T. cruzi transmission. Our research aimed to assess T. cruzi presence in woodrats in a previously unstudied northern California area, statistically evaluate woodrat microhabitat use with respect to vegetation parameters, and provide guidance for habitat modifications to mitigate public health risks associated with Tr. protracta exposure. Blood samples from big-eared woodrats (N. macrotis) trapped on rural private properties yielded a T. cruzi prevalence of 14.3%. Microhabitat analyses suggest that modifying vegetation to reduce understory density within a 40 meter radius of human residences might minimize woodrat lodge construction within this buffer area, potentially decreasing human exposure to Tr. protracta.     

Regulatory <Emphasis Type="Italic">cis</Emphasis>-elements on citrus peel-specific expressed gene, <Emphasis Type="Italic">CuCRTISO-like</Emphasis>, promoter respond to hormones and abiotic stresses in transgenic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis</Emphasis>

We identified a peel-specific expressed gene in Citrus unshiu fruits by differentially expressed gene (DEG) analysis, which showed a homology with carotenoid isomerase-like genes identified from other plants and, therefore, designated as CuCRTISO-like. Here we determined the promoter sequence of CuCRTISO-like and analyzed histochemical GUS activity using transgenic Arabidopsis plants harboring CuCRTISO-like promoter-GUS gene constructs (pCRTL-Prom1~pCRTL-Prom5 lines). The promoter activity of CuCRTISO-like was detected in the cotyledon at 5 and 10 days after germination (DAG), young leaf, and anther, but not in the cotyledon at 15 DAG and mature leaf. Several cis-acting elements involved in hormones and abiotic stresses are located on the CuCRTISO-like promoter. Salicylic acid and ethylene treatments induced the GUS activity in the pCRTL-prom1 and pCRTL-Prom4 line, respectively. Treatment of drought and wounding stress induced the GUS activity in the pCRTL-Prom4 and pCRTL-Prom3 line, respectively. Heat stress treatment induced GUS activity more strongly as the promoter length decreased except for no GUS activity in the pCRTL-Prom5 line. The CuCRTISO-like expression during fruit maturation of C. unshiu showed a peel-specific expression pattern. Our results suggest that CuCRTISO-like promoter activity is regulated in a developmental and organ-specific manner, and responds to hormones and abiotic stresses.     

Variation in the Presence of Anti-<Emphasis Type="Italic">Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</Emphasis> Bacteria of Amphibians Across Life Stages and Elevations in Ecuador

Amphibian populations are decreasing worldwide due to a variety of factors. In South America, the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is linked to many population declines. The pathogenic effect of Bd on amphibians can be inhibited by specific bacteria present on host skin. This symbiotic association allows some amphibians to resist the development of the disease chytridiomycosis. Here, we aimed (1) to determine for the first time if specific anti-Bd bacteria are present on amphibians in the Andes of Ecuador, (2) to monitor anti-Bd bacteria across developmental stages in a focal amphibian, the Andean marsupial tree frog, Gastrotheca riobambae, that deposits larvae in aquatic habitats, and (3) to compare the Bd presence associated with host assemblages including 10 species at sites ranging in biogeography from Amazonian rainforest (450 masl) to Andes montane rainforest (3200 masl). We sampled and identified skin-associated bacteria of frogs in the field using swabs and a novel methodology of aerobic counting plates, and a combination of morphological, biochemical, and molecular identification techniques. The following anti-Bd bacteria were identified and found to be shared among several hosts at high-elevation sites where Bd was present at a prevalence of 32.5%: Janthinobacterium lividum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Serratia sp. Bd were detected in Gastrotheca spp. and not detected in the lowlands (sites below 1000 masl). In G. riobambae, recognized Bd-resistant bacteria start to be present at the metamorphic stage. Overall bacterial abundance was significantly higher post-metamorphosis and on species sampled at lower elevations. Further metagenomic studies are needed to evaluate the roles of host identity, life-history stage, and biogeography of the microbiota and their function in disease resistance.     

Nucleotide Diversity of the Coding and Promoter Regions of <Emphasis Type="Italic">DREB1D</Emphasis>, a Candidate Gene for Drought Tolerance in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Coffea</Emphasis> Species

Climate change is posing a major challenge to coffee production worldwide leading to a need for the development of coffee cultivars with increased drought tolerance. In several plant species, the use of DREB genes in crop improvement has achieved promising results to desiccation tolerance engineering. Recent studies reported CcDREB1D specific patterns of expression in Coffea canephora and functional evidence of this gene involvement in drought stress responses. However, knowledge on natural diversity of this gene is largely unknown. In this context, this study aimed at evaluating the sequence variability of the DREB1D gene in several Coffea genotypes. Nucleotide variation in promoters and coding regions of this gene were evaluated in a population consisting of 38 genotypes of C. canephora, C. arabica and C. eugenioides, most of them characterized by different phenotypes (tolerance vs. susceptibility) in relation to drought. The genetic diversity of the loci revealed different haplotypes for the promoter and coding regions. In particular, our findings suggest association between drought tolerance and the genetic variations on DREB1D promoter regions, but not with those from its corresponding coding regions. Gene expression studies revealed up-regulated expression of DREB1D gene upon drought mainly in leaves of drought-tolerant clones of C. canephora, and in response to drought, high, and low temperatures in leaves of C. arabica, suggesting a key role of this gene in coffee responses to abiotic stress.     

Feeding behavior,ration and size structure of a population of the predatory gastropod <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptonatica janthostoma</Emphasis> in Vostok Bay,Sea of Japan

The relationships between the shell height of the predatory gastropod Cryptonatica janthostoma and the shell length of its typical prey, the bivalve Ruditapes philippinarum, and the diameter of the borehole on the prey shell resulting from a successful attack of the predator were experimentally found and assessed statistically. The shell height of C. janthostoma calculated retrospectively from the borehole diameter using the obtained relationships was 17–52 mm. The prey of C. janthostoma are burrowing bivalves, whose populations are affected by the predator to a varying degree. In populations of medium-sized mollusks (R. philippinarum, Protothaca euglypta, P. jedoensis, and others), C. janthostoma feeds on mollusks larger than 7–10 mm; in species with a shell length greater than 100 mm (Callista brevisiphonata, Saxidomus purpuratus), it eats specimens of 10–58 mm. C. janthostoma apparently has no effect on populations of small-sized mollusks (Anisocorbula venusta) and mollusks with an active avoidance response (Clinocardium californiense).     

Pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity of monogalactosyldiacylglycerols isolated from the freshwater microalga <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chlorella sorokiniana</Emphasis>

Chemical investigation of the freshwater microalga Chlorella sorokiniana led to the isolation of a monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG)-rich fraction possessing dose-dependent inhibitory activity against pancreatic lipase activity. The MGDG-rich fraction contains 12 MGDGs identified by LC/HRMS analysis. Among them, three MGDGs were new compounds, namely, (2S)-1-O-(7Z,10Z-hexadecadienoyl)-2-O-(7Z,10Z,13Z-hexadecatrienoyl)-3-O-β-D-galactopyranosylglycerol (1), (2S)-1-O-linoleoyl-2-O-(7Z,10Z-hexadecadienoyl)-3-O-β-D-galactopyranosylglycerol (6), and (2S)-1-O-oleoyl-2-O-(7Z,10Z-hexadecadienoyl)-3-O-β-D-galactopyranosylglycerol (8). The major galactolipids were isolated by semipreparative HPLC and tested for their effect toward pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity. All the tested MGDGs showed significant reduction of pancreatic lipase activity indicating possible beneficial use for management of lipase-related disorders such as obesity.