Properties of calcium channels in cardiac muscle and vascular smooth muscle

The voltage-dependent slow channels in the myocardial cell membrane are the major pathway by which Ca²⁺ ions enter the cell during excitation for initiation and regulation of the force of contraction of cardiac muscle. The slow channels have some special properties, including functional dependence on metabolic energy, selective blockade by acidosis, and regulation by the intracellular cyclic nucleotide levels. Because of these special properties of the slow channels, Ca²⁺ influx into the myocardial cell can be controlled by extrinsic factors (such as autonomic nerve stimulation or circulating hormones) and by intrinsic factors (such as cellular pH or ATP level). The slow Ca²⁺ channels of the heart are regulated by cAMP in a stimulatory fashion. Elevation of cAMP produces a very rapid increase in number of slow channels available for voltage activation during excitation. The probability of a slow channel opening and the mean open time of the channel are increased. Therefore, any agent that increases the cAMP level of the myocardial cell will tend to potentiate I_si, Ca²⁺ influx, and contraction. The myocardial slow Ca²⁺ channels are also regulated by cGMP, in a manner that is opposite to that of CAMP. The effect of cGMP is presumably mediated by means of phosphorylation of a protein, as for example, a regulatory protein (inhibitory-type) associated with the slow channel. Preliminary data suggest that calmodulin also may play a role in regulation of the myocardial slow Ca²⁺ channels, possibly mediated by the Ca²⁺-calmodulin-protein kinase and phosphorylation of some regulatory-type of protein. Thus, it appears that the slow Ca²⁺ channel is a complex structure, including perhaps several associated regulatory proteins, which can be regulated by a number of extrinsic and intrinsic factors.VSM cells contain two types of Ca²⁺ channels: slow (L-type) Ca²⁺ channels and fast (T-type) Ca²⁺ channels. Although regulation of voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ slow channels of VSM cells have not been fully clarified yet, we have made some progress towards answering this question. Slow (L-type, high-threshold) Ca²⁺ channels may be modified by phosphorylation of the channel protein or an associated regulatory protein. In contrast to cardiac muscle where cAMP and cGMP have antagonistic effects on Ca²⁺ slow channel activity, in VSM, cAMP and cGMP have similar effects, namely inhibition of the Ca²⁺ slow channels. Thus, any agent that elevates cAMP or cGMP will inhibit Ca²⁺ influx, and thereby act to produce vasodilation. The Ca²⁺ slow channels require ATP for activity, with a K_0.5 of about 0.3 mM. C-kinase may stimulate the Ca²⁺ slow channels by phosphorylation. G-protein may have a direct action on the Ca²⁺ channels, and may mediate the effects of activation of some receptors. These mechanisms of Ca²⁺ channel regulation may be invoked during exposure to agonists or drugs, which change second messenger levels, thereby controlling vascular tone.     

影响主动脉平滑肌细胞迁移的因素

平滑肌细胞(vascular smooth muscle cell,VSMC)的迁移对血管发育、动脉粥样硬化和术后再狭窄等起到关键性的作用。主要从激发VSMC迁移的关键炎性细胞因子、细胞间相互作用的核心成员、microRNA、细胞骨架和上述各因素的迁移信号通路这几方面来综述VSMC的迁移。     

Extracellular calcium sensing in rat aortic vascular smooth muscle cells

Extracellular calcium (Ca(2+)(o)) can act as a first messenger in many cell types through a G protein-coupled receptor, calcium-sensing receptor (CaR). It is still debated whether the CaR is expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Here, we report the expression of CaR mRNA and protein in rat aortic VSMCs and show that Ca(2+)(o) stimulates proliferation of the cells. The effects of Ca(2+)(o) were attenuated by pre-treatment with MAPK kinase 1 (MEK1) inhibitor, as well as an allosteric modulator, NPS 2390. Furthermore, stimulation of the VSMCs with Ca(2+)(o)-induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2, but surprisingly did not cause inositol phosphate accumulation. We were not able to conclusively state that the CaR mediates Ca(2+)(o)-induced cell proliferation. Rather, an additional calcium-sensing mechanism may exist. Our findings may be of importance with regard to atherosclerosis, an inflammatory disease characterized by abnormal proliferation of VSMCs and high local levels of calcium.     

肾上腺髓质素和降钙素基因相关肽受体在血管平滑肌细胞的脱敏—受体活性修饰蛋白的作用

新近研究发现,肾上腺髓质素（adrenomedullin,ADM)和降钙素基因相关肽（calcitonin gene-related peptide,CGRP)均能与降钙素受体样受体（calcitoni receptor-like receptor,CRLR)结合,其配体特异性由受体活性修饰蛋白（receptor activity-modifying protein RAMP)调控,本工作在离体培养的大鼠胸主动脉血管平滑肌细胞（vsacular smooth muscle cells,VSMCs)上观察ADM和CGRP受体脱敏现象,以探讨CRLR／RAMP假说在心血管组织方面的意义,用无血清培养基（serum-free medium,SFM)和含有10^-8mol/L ADM,CGRP和肾上腺髓素质前体原N－末端20肽（proadrenomedullin N-terminal 20 peptide PAMP）的SFM培养,再用10^-8mol/L ADM或 CGRP和磷酸二酯酶的抑制剂异丙基次黄苷（isobutyryl methyxanthine,IBMX)与VSMCs进行第二次孵育,然后收集细胞,测定VSMCs cAMP含量。10^-8mol/LADM,CGRP和PAMP单独与VSMCs孵育,VSMCs cAMP含量分别较SFM组高191％（P＜0．01）,385％（P＜0．01）和67％（P＜0．05）,预先用10^-8mol/L ADM ak CGRP与VSMCs孵育可降低随后的CGRP刺激VSMCs产生cAMP,分别较单次CGRP育少44％（P＜0．05）和48％（P＜0．01）,预先用100nmol/L蛋白激酶A（PKA）抑制剂H－89处理VSMCs,可完全阻断ADM和CGRP预处理诱导的第二次CGRP刺激的VSMCs cAMP含量减少,表明VSMCs对CGRP的脱敏过程是通过PKA途径实现的,预先用ADM,CGRP处理VSMCs后,用ADM第二次孵育,细胞内cAMP含量与单次ADM孵育无明显改变,PKA抑制H－89与VSMCs孵育,无论对欠ADM刺激或对ADM和CGRP处理的第二次刺激的cAMP生成均无影响,用PAMP处理VSMCs后,ADM和CGRP的第二次刺激的VSMCs cAMP水平无明显改变（P＞0．05）。结果提示,在离体培养的大鼠VSMCs,ADM epc wsg i euk txgtdmj CGRP受体对预先用ADM和CGRP处理后的激动剂的第二次刺激都脱敏,表明ADM和CGRP的脱敏现象不一致。     

The calpain—calpastatin system in vascular smooth muscle

Vascular smooth muscle contains large amounts of the Ca²⁺-dependent protease calpain II. In this study, we compared bovine aortic muscle (muscle phenotype) to cultured bovine aortic cells of smooth muscle origin (modulated phenotype) with respect to major constituents of the calpain—calpastatin system. Bovine aortic muscle contained only calpain II by activity measurements, Western blot of tissue extracts and Northern blot of poly(A)⁺ RNA. On the other hand, using the same methodologies, both calpains I and II as well as the 110 kDa inhibitor protein, calpastatin, were identified in cultured bovine aortic cells of smooth muscle origin. We conclude that the phenotypic state of smooth muscle cells is associated with differential expression of major components of the calpain—calpastatin system. Moreover, bovine aortic muscle is the only tissue identified to date that contains calpain II exclusively.     

Characterization of vascular smooth muscle cell phenotype in long-term culture

Summary Studies of bovine carotid artery smooth muscle cells, during long-term in vitro subcultivation (up to 100 population doublings), have revealed phenotypic heterogeneity among cells, as characterized by differences in proliferative behavoir, cell morphology, and contractile-cytoskeletal protein profiles. In vivo, smooth muscle cells were spindle-shaped and expressed desmin and alpha-smooth muscle actin (50% of total actin) as their predominant cytoskeletal and contractile proteins. Within 24 h of culture, vimentin rather than desmin was the predominant intermediate filament protein, with little change in alpha-actin content. Upon initial subcultivation, all cells were flattened and fibroblastic in appearance with a concommitant fivefold reduction in alpha-actin content, whereas the beta and gamma nonmuscle actins predominated. In three out of four cell lines studied, fluctuations in proliferative activity were observed during the life span of the culture. These spontaneous fluctuations in proliferation were accompanied by coordinated changes in morphology and contractile-cytoskeletal protein profiles. During periods of enhanced proliferation a significant proportion of cells reverted to their original spindle-shaped morphology with a simultaneous increase in alpha-actin content (20 to 30% of total actin). These results suggest that in long-term culture smooth muscle cells undergo spontaneous modulations in cell phenotype and may serve as a useful model for studying the regulation of intracellular protein expression. This work was supported by grants from from National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, to DMW (HL35684), JW (HL36412), and JM and RL (SCOR HL 14212).     

Modulation of ANP-C receptor signaling by arginine-vasopressin in A-10 vascular smooth muscle cells: role of protein kinase C

We have previously shown that pretreatment of A-10 vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) with angiotensin II (Ang II) attenuated atrial natriuretic peptide receptor-C (ANP-C)-mediated inhibition of adenylyl cyclase without altering [125I]ANP binding. In the present studies, we have investigated the modulation of ANP-C receptor signaling by arginine-vasopressin (AVP). Pretreatment of A-10 VSMC with AVP for 24h resulted in a reduction in ANP receptor binding activity by about 50% (B(max); control cells, 22.9+/-2.5 fmol/mg protein, AVP-treated cells, 11.4+/-1.2 fmol/mg protein). In addition, the expression of ANP-C receptor as determined by immunoblotting was also decreased by about 50% by AVP treatment, which was prevented by GF109203X, an inhibitor of protein kinase C (PKC). The decreased expression of ANP-C receptor was reflected in an attenuation of ANP-C receptor-mediated inhibition of adenylyl cyclase. C-ANP(4-23) [des(Gln(18),Ser(19),Gln(20),Leu(21),Gly(22))ANP(4-23)-NH(2)], a ring deleted peptide of ANP that interacts specifically with ANP-C receptor, inhibited adenylyl cyclase activity by about 30% in control cells, which was completely attenuated in AVP-treated cells. This attenuated inhibition was significantly restored by GF 109203X. In addition, AVP treatment augmented the levels of Gialpha-2 and Gialpha-3 proteins; however, the Gi functions were completely attenuated. The increased expression of Gialpha proteins induced by AVP was inhibited by GF109203X as well as by actinomycin D treatments. In addition, AVP treatment also enhanced the expression of Gsalpha protein and Gsalpha-mediated stimulation of adenylyl cyclase by GTPgammaS, N-ethylcarboxamide adenosine (NECA), and forskolin (FSK), whereas the levels of Gbeta were not altered by AVP treatment. These results indicate that AVP-induced PKC signaling may be responsible for the down-regulation of ANP-C receptor that results in the attenuation of C-ANP(4-23)-mediated inhibition of adenylyl cyclase activity, and suggest a cross-talk between vasopressin V(1) and ANP-C receptor-mediated signaling pathways.     

Gene expression profile of butyrate-inhibited vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation

Excessive proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is a critical element in the development of several vascular pathologies, particularly in atherosclerosis and in restenosis due to angioplasty. We have shown that butyrate, a powerful antiproliferative agent, a strong promoter of cell differentiation and an inducer of apoptosis inhibits VSMC proliferation at physiological concentrations with no cytotoxicity. In the present study, we have used cDNA array technology to unravel the molecular basis of the antiproliferative effect of butyrate on VSMCs. To assess the involvement of gene expression in butyrate-inhibited VSMC proliferation, proliferating VSMCs were exposed to 5 mmol/1 butyrate 1 through 5 days after plating. Expression profiles of 1,176 genes representing different functional classes in untreated control and butyrate treated VSMCs were compared. A total of 111 genes exhibiting moderate (2.0–5.0 fold to strong (> 5.0 fold) differential expression were identified. Analysis of these genes indicates that butyrate treatment mainly alters the expression of four different functional classes of genes, which include: 43 genes implicated in cell growth and differentiation, 13 genes related to stress response, 11 genes associated with vascular function and 8 genes normally present in neuronal cells. Examination of differentially expressed cell growth and differentiation related genes indicate that butyrate-inhibited VSMC proliferation appears to involve down-regulation of genes that encode several positive regulators of cell growth and up-regulation of some negative regulators of growth or differentiation inducers. Some of the down-regulated genes include proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), retinoblastoma susceptibility related protein p130 (pRb), cell division control protein 2 homolog (cdc2), cyclin B1, cell division control protein 20 homolog (p55cdc), high mobility group (HMG) 1 and 2 and several others. Whereas the up-regulated genes include cyclin D1, p21WAF1, p14INK4B/p15INK5B, Clusterin, inhibitor of DNA binding 1 (ID1) and others. On the other hand, butyrate-responsive stress-related genes include some of the members of heat shock protein (HSP), glutathione-s-transferase (GST), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PXs) and cytochrome P450 (CYP) families. Additionally, several genes related to vascular and neuronal function are also responsive to butyrate treatment. Although involvement of genes that encode stress response, vascular and neuronal functional proteins in cell proliferation is not clear, cDNA expression array data appear to suggest that they may play a role in the regulation of cell proliferation. However, cDNA expression profiles indicate that butyrate-inhibited VSMC proliferation involves combined action of a proportionally large number of both positive and negative regulators of growth, which ultimately causes growth arrest of VSMCs. Furthermore, these butyrate-induced differential gene expression changes are not only consistent with the antiproliferative effect of butyrate but are also in agreement with the roles that these gene products play in cell proliferation.     

Endothelin-1 induces the expression of C-reactive protein in rat vascular smooth muscle cells

Numerous studies have shown that both vasoconstrictive peptide endothelin-1 (ET-1) and inflammatory marker C-reactive protein (CRP) are implicated in the inflammatory process of atherosclerosis. The purpose of the present study was to observe effect of ET-1 on CRP production and the molecular mechanisms in rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). The results showed that ET-1 was capable of stimulating VSMCs to produce CRP both in protein and in mRNA levels in vitro and in vivo. ET_A receptor antagonist BQ123, but not ET_B receptor antagonist BQ788, inhibited CRP production in VSMCs. In addition, ET-1 was able to elicit reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation, and antioxidant pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate and p38MAPK inhibitor SB203580 inhibited ET-1-induced CRP expression. The results demonstrate that ET-1 induces CPR production in VSMCs via ET_A receptor followed by ROS and MAPK signal pathway, which may contribute to better understanding of the role of ET-1 in inflammatory activation of the vessel wall during atherogenesis.     

Intracellular regulation of heterotrimeric G-protein signaling modulates vascular smooth muscle cell contraction

The contractile function of vascular smooth muscle cells within the media of resistance arterioles is tightly connected to the role of these blood vessels in the maintenance of blood pressure homeostasis. Thus, much effort has been made to understand the intracellular signaling pathways that control vascular smooth muscle cell contractility with the aim that this knowledge will provide important clues for reducing the impact of uncontrolled blood pressure in our society. A key set of surface receptors, the G-protein coupled receptors, has been widely associated with the regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell contractility. Indeed, many of the current treatments for hypertension involve selective inhibition of these receptors. More recently, we have begun to understand the cellular mechanisms whereby G-protein coupled pathways are connected to the contractile machinery of the vascular smooth muscle cells. What has emerged is a view where there are multiple intracellular control points for G-protein signaling that coordinate and focus the extracellular stimuli into meaningful physiologic responses. This work will examine some of the recent advances in our understanding of G-protein signaling and its regulation of contractile function in vascular smooth muscle cells.     

Pentobarbital sodium inhibits calcium uptake in vascular smooth muscle

This report demonstrates that the commonly used anesthetic agent, pentobarbital sodium, in concentrations of 1 · 10^?4 to 2 · 10^?3 M inhibits calcium (Ca²⁺) uptake in both rat aortic and portal venous smooth muscle. The data indicate that total exchangeable Ca²⁺ in portal vein is reduced by about 15% in 1 · 10^?4 M pentobarbital sodium, while the intracellular exchangeable Ca²⁺ is reduced by 24%. On the other hand, in aortic smooth muscle, while 5–20 · 10^?4 M pentobarbital sodium reduces total exchangeable Ca²⁺ by about 15%, intracellular Ca²⁺ is reduced by 22% in 5 · 10^?4 M pentobarbital sodium and by 38% in 2 · 10^?3 M pentobarbital sodium. The present studies thus reveal that concentrations of pentobarbital sodium known to be present during induction of surgical anesthesia can exert significant inhibitory effects on exchangeability and transmembrane movement of Ca²⁺ in at least two different types of blood vessels.     

UV-C照射诱导体外血管平滑肌细胞凋亡模型的建立

应用常规细胞培养超净台紫外消毒灯（２２０Ｗ,２２０Ｖ,５０Ｈｚ）发射的ＵＶ－Ｃ波段的紫外光源（２５４ｎｍ）,垂直照射距离其１０ｃｍ处的大鼠主动脉平滑肌细胞,发现经照射后细胞出现典型的凋亡形态学改变,如细胞变圆,染色质浓缩,细胞膜出泡,出现凋亡小体等;细胞面积,核面积及核／胞面积比均显著降低;且提取细胞ＤＮＡ的琼脂糖凝胶电泳呈现梯状图谱。从形态学和生化指标方面证明了ＵＶ－Ｃ照射可诱导体外血管ＳＭＣｓ     

pp60c-src在血管平滑肌细胞内丝裂原活化蛋白激酶激活中的作用

观察ｐｐ６０ｃ－ｓｒｃ在血管紧张素Ⅱ（ＡｎｇⅡ）诱导血管平滑肌细胞（ＶＳＭＣｓ）内丝裂原活化蛋白激酶（ＭＡＰＫ）激活中的作用,以了解ＡｎｇⅡ促ＶＳＭＣｓ增殖的信号转导过程。将合成的反义ｃ－ｓｒｃ寡脱氧核苷酸（ｏｌｉｇｏｄｅｏｘｙｎｕｃｌｅ－ｏｔｉｄｅｓ,ＯＤＮｓ）以脂质体包裹转染培养的大鼠ＶＳＭＣｓ,用Ｗｅｓｔｅｒｎ印迹测得细胞裂解液中ｐｐ６０ｃ－ｓｒｃ含量明显下降,免疫沉淀方法测得ｐｐ６０ｃ－ｓ     

血管平滑肌细胞的分化与血管内壁的构建

血管平滑肌细胞(vascular smooth muscle cells,VSMCs)的发育与血管壁的构建是目前相关领域中的重要学科前沿．国内外同行的工作多集中在血管发育初始阶段内皮细胞及其前体细胞在血管新生中的作用、调节因素及生物学机制．VSMCs参与血管壁早期构建,特别是VSMCs的募集与分化机制已经成为血管新生研究中的一个新领域． 本期发表的《 抑制Rac1蛋白活化阻碍胚胎发育早期血管新生 》(见696～701页)报道了韩雅玲教授及其合作者在这一领域取得的最新研究结果．Rac1是真核细胞内重要的一类信号传递分子,在细胞信号传递过程中发挥分子开关作用．他们采用胚胎干细胞(ESCs)为模型,建立稳定表达持续型Rac1和显性失活型Rac1编码序列的小鼠ESCs并制备胚胎小体,诱导分化后观察其对内皮细胞分化和迁移的影响,发现抑制Rac1可以干扰血管内皮细胞连接成血管网状结构,细胞骨架F-actin排列紊乱,细胞的迁移受到明显抑制,表明Rac1在胚胎早期血管发育过程中与内皮细胞的迁移有关[1]． 近年来,韩雅玲教授及其研究集体在VSMCs发育与血管构建、胚胎干细胞来源的拟胚体血管平滑肌发育与血管新生机制以及胚胎主动脉VSMCs起源等方面开展了研究,取得了一系列有价值的成果[2～11],可能为闭塞性和增生性血管病的发生及防治提供理论依据和候选基因．详见“相关链接”．     

猪冠状动脉平滑肌细胞的自发瞬时外向电流的特性

自发瞬时外向电流（spontaneous transient outward currents,STOCs）在小动脉的肌源性调节中起着非常重要的作用。本文应用穿孔膜片钳技术记录了猪冠状动脉平滑肌细胞上的STOCs,研究了其基本特性以及调节。结果显示：STOCs有明显的电压依赖性和钙依赖性,其频率和幅度具有变异性。STOCs可以随机叠加在阶跃刺激方案和斜坡刺激方案引出的全细胞钾电流上。STOCs可被大电导钙激活钾（large-conductance Ca^2＋-activated potassium,BKCa）通道的特异性阻断剂ChTX、螯合胞外钙离子和50μmol／L ryanodine完全抑制。钙离子载体A23187可以明显增加STOCs的幅度和频率;而L型钙通道阻断剂verapamil和CdCl2对STOCs的影响很小。咖啡因使STOCs瞬时爆发性增加,然后抑制。钠离子载体可明显增加STOCs的频率;钠钙交换体选择性抑制剂KB．R7943可明显抑制STOCs。由此可以认为STOCs是BKCa通道介导的。STOCs的产生和激活依赖于经钠钙交换的钙内流和经肌浆网ryanodine受体介导的钙释放,钠钙交换可能决定钙库重载,而细胞膜下肌浆网的胞内钙释放（钙火花）所致的局部钙浓度瞬时增加激活与其相邻的BKCa通道,产生STOCs。