生物多样性与生态系统服务——关系、权衡与管理

生物多样性和生态系统服务是人类生存和社会经济可持续发展的物质基础,应对生物多样性丧失和生态系统服务退化问题已经成为继气候变化之后的又一个全球性环境热点问题。生物多样性是生态系统生产力、稳定性、抵抗生物入侵以及养分动态的主要决定因素,生物多样性越高,生态系统功能性状的范围越广,生态系统服务质量就越高越稳定。目的是探讨生物多样性和生态系统服务之间的关系:(1)明确了生物多样性与生态系统过程、功能、服务之间的关系;(2)生物多样性在生态系统服务中的角色:生物多样性在不同的空间尺度通过各种形式的运行机制与生态系统服务产生联系,生物多样性是生态系统过程的调节者,是巩固生态系统服务的一个重要因素,生物多样性也是一种终极的生态系统服务,并在遗传和物种水平上直接贡献了其利益和价值;(3)生物多样性与生态系统服务权衡和协同关系的研究可以更好的帮助管理人员做出有利的决策和保护工作,也是制定规划和适应策略以减少生物多样性危机带来的不利影响的基础;(4)生物多样性与生态系统服务的关系在不同的时间和空间尺度上是不恒定的,有必要共同确定生态系统服务和生物多样性的空间格局,以有效和可持续的进行生态系统管理;(5)虽然生物多样性保护和生态系统管理还存在许多不确定性,但相关理论应该在管理、保护和恢复生态系统中发挥重要作用。研究提出了进一步研究的领域,以促进生物多样性保护和生态系统服务提供之间的协同作用。希望对相关领域的研究有所帮助。     

陆地生态系统服务与生物多样性研究进展

在生物多样性迅速消失的压力下,人类面临生态系统服务质量严重下降的威胁。为了使生态系统的重要功能更直观的展现在人们面前,许多学者把生态系统服务对人类的惠益进行整理分类,最有影响力的是千年生态系统评估(MA,Millennium Ecosystem Assessment)把生态系统服务分为供给、调节、文化和支持服务四类,服务的核心是生态系统的产品、过程和格局。生态系统服务的识别与分类是生态系统功能的对象化过程,也是以人类需求来审视生态系统的过程。生态系统通过结构-过程-功能这一途径来实现生态系统服务,各种服务的直接动力来源于自然界生物地球化学循环,生物多样性通过生态系统属性和过程来影响生态系统服务形成和维持。生物多样性越高,生态系统功能性状的范围越广,生态系统服务质量就越高、越稳定。全球变化中的土地利用和土地覆盖变化是生物多样性快速下降的主要原因,也是目前影响生态系统服务最广泛、最剧烈的驱动力,而这正是人类活动造成的,人类需求和生态系统有限的服务能力之间在不同尺度表现出严重冲突。要提高生态系统服务质量,要在不同区域进行重点不同的布局,尽可能的扩大生态系统规模和提高生态系统功能,核心是提高生物多样性水平。     

生态系统服务网及其生态学意义

生态系统服务概念的提出将人类福祉与生态环境更直接地联系起来,有助于认识和解决发展与保护的难题。从生态系统服务网络的视角出发,可以更好的理解生态系统服务供给、流动和需求等相关复杂问题。（1）生态系统服务网将不同生态过程与服务有机联系起来,为生态系统服务交互研究提供参考。（2）不同尺度下生态系统服务间的交互作用以及自然-社会的互动是网络体系的重要组成部分,按服务网络间联系方式可以划分为网状层次、关系模块和对象模块。（3）生态系统服务在生物、生境网络中形成,受自然因素和人为因素的双重影响,服务网络间的联系与转化受生态系统服务流和网络关系的制约。（4）景观异质性、生物多样性和生态循环分别是生态系统服务网络形成的基础、核心和形成机制。（5）生态系统服务网络便于生态系统服务价值评估、空间制图,是提高人类对环境认知的重要手段。（6）人类福祉与生态系统服务间的非线性关系适宜用网络来表达,景观优化实质上是生态系统服务网调控的动态过程。     

Ecosystem services and biodiversity in developing countries

The concept of ecosystem services has become important for our understanding of the role of nature for maintaining human livelihoods. But is biodiversity essential to maintain ecosystem services? Many studies suggest that higher biodiversity allows a higher level of ecosystem services, but others argue that there is little hard evidence, especially from tropical environments, to document the necessity of high biodiversity for provision of most ecosystem services. Thus, effective valuation of biodiversity for ecosystem services and long-term studies and monitoring are needed to fully understand the complex biodiversity-ecosystem service interface. This introduction briefly reviews some of the main arguments in this debate and provides an overview of the other five special issue papers. Exploring biodiversity and ecosystem interactions in the context of the provision of ecosystem services, these papers address population and biodiversity coexistence, the importance of dung beetles in agricultural landscapes, the knowledge and use of palms by local communities, bioprospecting for drugs and how biodiversity conservation may have added benefits in terms of improved watershed functions and health.     

Ecosystem services provided by semi-natural and intensified grasslands: Synergies,trade-offs and linkages to plant traits and functional richness

Question

Semi-natural grasslands (SNG) are important for maintaining biodiversity and ecological processes in farmland. Current pasture-based livestock production mainly occurs on intensified grasslands (IG) that have been agronomically improved. Although it is documented that SNG and IG differ in terms of plant diversity, their ability to provide ecosystem services (ES) in farmland is less explored. Here, we review the role of SNG and IG in delivering ES, illustrate their trade-offs and synergies, and examine how ES can be assessed by using plant traits and functional richness.

Results

We found that SNG generate a wider range of ES than IG. Trade-offs exist between ES that appear more pronounced in IG between high biomass production and other ES. SNG are good in providing habitat for biodiversity, supporting pollination and cultural services. SNG also have a significantly wider range of plant functional traits and a higher functional richness, suggesting that the potential to supply ES in SNG is partly driven by higher number of species and their functional diversity.

Conclusion

Clearer trade-offs were found in IG compared with SNG, supported both by the literature and the functional richness. This suggests that functional knowledge could be a good complement to understand the mechanisms behind ES generation and could help with tailoring grassland management to sustain biodiversity, ecological functions and ES. Although both IG and SNG are likely needed for the long-term sustainability of food production, both could aim for a more balanced generation of ES, increasing biodiversity and functional redundancy at the landscape scale.     

差异化的生态公益林生态补偿标准——以北京市为例

生态补偿本质是生态系统服务的购买,因此生态补偿标准的制定必须基于生态系统所提供的生态服务价值。2004年开始,北京市逐步对生态公益林进行生态补偿,但补偿项目仍然采用了一刀切的标准制定模式。森林生态系统因树种和林龄的不同,提供的生态系统服务存在较大差异。另外,生态公益林所处的区域位置也决定着其生态系统服务价值发挥的稳定性和相对重要性,是生态补偿标准的制定中必须要考虑的因素。因而,有必要基于生态系统的生态服务价值量核算,并综合考虑生态系统的立地环境、区域定位和资源稀缺度因素,构建差异化的生态公益林生态补偿方案。依据该方案计算的北京生态公益林补偿标准范围在176元/hm~2到2168元/hm~2,其中延庆区和怀柔区的生态公益林补偿标准较高,中心城区和房山区的补偿标准较低。补偿标准的全市平均值为1265元/hm~2,与北京现行山区生态林生态补偿项目的补偿标准相当。构建的公益林生态补偿标准,体现了生态系统的生态服务价值以及生态服务的区位相对重要性差异,为动态化、多元化的公益林生态补偿方案建立提供了可能。     

Assessment and illustration of cultural ecosystem services at the local scale – A retrospective trend analysis

There is a need to develop non-monetary methods for the assessment of cultural ecosystem services, in order to integrate them into the ES framework in a more balanced way. With this in mind, an adequate and comprehensive indicator base and mapping methods are required to communicate and discuss cultural ecosystem services, for it to be understood holistically. Referring to land use changes as an important driver for ES changes, we demonstrate the analysis of cultural ecosystem services trends, in a retrospective, as a supporting tool to better understand social and natural interactions as drivers behind land use changes, which are reflected in the landscape scene. There are two main outcomes of this study: (1) first, we developed and tested a catalogue of indicators as an approach to evaluate cultural ecosystem services trends at the local scale and (2) we established a mapping method for cultural ecosystem services trends in parallel with land use changes. This we did following the example of the afforestation processes which had taken place since the 19th century in the suburban area of Göttingen (Lower Saxony/Germany), called Hainberg. Our main conclusion is that cultural ecosystem services trends can indicate the reasons and drivers for land use changes that can be beneficial to forest/landscape management issues by means of the restoration of lost services. The proposed assessment method can be integrated into the development of future landscape plans, e.g. by providing information on historical guiding principles.     

A national approach for mapping and quantifying habitat-based biodiversity metrics across multiple spatial scales

Ecosystem services, i.e., services provided to humans from ecological systems have become a key issue of this century in resource management, conservation planning, and environmental decision analysis. Mapping and quantifying ecosystem services have become strategic national interests for integrating ecology with economics to help understand the effects of human policies and actions and their subsequent impacts on both ecosystem function and human well-being. Some aspects of biodiversity are valued by humans in varied ways, and thus are important to include in any assessment that seeks to identify and quantify the benefits of ecosystems to humans. Some biodiversity metrics clearly reflect ecosystem services (e.g., abundance and diversity of harvestable species), whereas others may reflect indirect and difficult to quantify relationships to services (e.g., relevance of species diversity to ecosystem resilience, cultural value of native species). Wildlife habitat has been modeled at broad spatial scales and can be used to map a number of biodiversity metrics. In the present study, we present an approach that (1) identifies mappable biodiversity metrics that are related to ecosystem services or other stakeholder concerns, (2) maps these metrics throughout a large multi-state region, and (3) compares the metric values obtained for selected watersheds within the regional context. The broader focus is to design a flexible approach for mapping metrics to produce a national-scale product. We map 20 biodiversity metrics reflecting ecosystem services or other aspects of biodiversity for all vertebrate species except fish. Metrics include species richness for all vertebrates, specific taxon groups, harvestable species (i.e., upland game, waterfowl, furbearers, small game, and big game), threatened and endangered species, and state-designated species of greatest conservation need, and also a metric for ecosystem (i.e., land cover) diversity. The project is being conducted at multiple scales in a phased approach, starting with place-based studies, then multi-state regional areas, culminating into a national-level atlas. As an example of this incremental approach, we provide results for the southwestern United States (i.e., states of Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado) and portions of two watersheds within this region: the San Pedro River (Arizona) and Rio Grande River (New Mexico). Geographic patterns differed considerably among metrics across the southwestern study area, but metric values for the two watershed study areas were generally greater than those for the southwestern region as a whole.     

The quest for a mechanistic understanding of biodiversity–ecosystem services relationships

Ecosystem services (ES) approaches to biodiversity conservation are currently high on the ecological research and policy agendas. However, despite a wealth of studies into biodiversity''s role in maintaining ES (B–ES relationships) across landscapes, we still lack generalities in the nature and strengths of these linkages. Reasons for this are manifold, but can largely be attributed to (i) a lack of adherence to definitions and thus a confusion between final ES and the ecosystem functions (EFs) underpinning them, (ii) a focus on uninformative biodiversity indices and singular hypotheses and (iii) top-down analyses across large spatial scales and overlooking of context-dependency. The biodiversity–ecosystem functioning (B–EF) field provides an alternate context for examining biodiversity''s mechanistic role in shaping ES, focusing on species'' characteristics that may drive EFs via multiple mechanisms across contexts. Despite acknowledgements of a need for B–ES research to look towards underlying B–EF linkages, the connections between these areas of research remains weak. With this review, we pull together recent B–EF findings to identify key areas for future developments in B–ES research. We highlight a means by which B–ES research may begin to identify how and when multiple underlying B–EF relationships may scale to final ES delivery and trade-offs.     

海洋生态系统服务的来源与实现

从海洋生态系统的组分、生态过程及生物多样性等3个方面,分析了海洋生态系统能够产生和支持的生态系统服务。按照相似的作用和性质,海洋生态系统服务可以归纳为15种类型。尽管对海洋生态系统的许多生态过程及生物种类还不了解,但本文试图在这些服务与其来源之间建立起对应关系,以掌握这些服务的实现过程。每种生态系统服务都来源于生态系统的组分。并通过一定生态过程得以实现。所以,当海洋生态系统的组分或过程受损时,海洋生态系统服务将减弱或丧失．并因此而影响人类对这些服务的享用。理解和掌握海洋生态系统服务的来源及实现过程,不仅可以更好地认识海洋生态系统的重要性,还可以为受损生态系统修复提供科学基础,从而更好地管理和维护海洋生态系统的服务,实现社会的可持续发展。     

Quantifying the evidence for biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning and services

Concern is growing about the consequences of biodiversity loss for ecosystem functioning, for the provision of ecosystem services, and for human well being. Experimental evidence for a relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem process rates is compelling, but the issue remains contentious. Here, we present the first rigorous quantitative assessment of this relationship through meta-analysis of experimental work spanning 50 years to June 2004. We analysed 446 measures of biodiversity effects (252 in grasslands), 319 of which involved primary producer manipulations or measurements. Our analyses show that: biodiversity effects are weaker if biodiversity manipulations are less well controlled; effects of biodiversity change on processes are weaker at the ecosystem compared with the community level and are negative at the population level; productivity-related effects decline with increasing number of trophic links between those elements manipulated and those measured; biodiversity effects on stability measures ('insurance' effects) are not stronger than biodiversity effects on performance measures. For those ecosystem services which could be assessed here, there is clear evidence that biodiversity has positive effects on most. Whilst such patterns should be further confirmed, a precautionary approach to biodiversity management would seem prudent in the meantime.     

中国生物多样性与生态系统服务评估指标体系

生物多样性和生态系统服务评估是生态系统管理与决策制定的重要依据,指标体系是开展评估的主要工具。中国在生物多样性与生态系统服务评估指标体系建设方面,由于没有形成统一的指标体系和技术方法,导致不同区域间的评估结果可比性差,区域和国家尺度上的集成研究难以开展。因此,构建一套适用于中国国家尺度的科学化、系统性和规范化的生物多样性和生态系统服务评估指标体系,便成为当前迫切需要研究解决的问题。本文参考国内外生物多样性与生态系统服务评估的主要研究成果,在充分考虑"生物多样性—生态系统结构—过程与功能—服务"级联关系基础上,建立了生物多样性与生态系统服务评估指标体系构建的主要原则,构建了中国生物多样性与生态系统服务评估指标体系。     

Trait‐based approaches to analyze links between the drivers of change and ecosystem services: Synthesizing existing evidence and future challenges

Understanding the responses of biodiversity to drivers of change and the effects of biodiversity on ecosystem properties and ecosystem services is a key challenge in the context of global environmental change. We performed a systematic review and meta‐analysis of the scientific literature linking direct drivers of change and ecosystem services via functional traits of three taxonomic groups (vegetation, invertebrates, and vertebrates) to: (1) uncover trends and research biases in this field; and (2) synthesize existing empirical evidence. Our results show the existence of important biases in published studies related to ecosystem types, taxonomic groups, direct drivers of change, ecosystem services, geographical range, and the spatial scale of analysis. We found multiple evidence of links between drivers and services mediated by functional traits, particularly between land‐use changes and regulating services in vegetation and invertebrates. Seventy‐five functional traits were recorded in our sample. However, few of these functional traits were repeatedly found to be associated with both the species responses to direct drivers of change (response traits) and the species effects on the provision of ecosystem services (effect traits). Our results highlight the existence of potential “key functional traits,” understood as those that have the capacity to influence the provision of multiple ecosystem services, while responding to specific drivers of change, across a variety of systems and organisms. Identifying “key functional traits” would help to develop robust indicator systems to monitor changes in biodiversity and their effects on ecosystem functioning and ecosystem services supply.     

Ecosystem approach to inland fisheries: research needs and implementation strategies

Inland fisheries are a vital component in the livelihoods and food security of people throughout the world, as well as contributing huge recreational and economic benefits. These valuable assets are jeopardized by lack of research-based understanding of the impacts of fisheries on inland ecosystems, and similarly the impact of human activities associated with inland waters on fisheries and aquatic biodiversity. To explore this topic, an international workshop was organized in order to examine strategies to incorporate fisheries into ecosystem approaches for management of inland waters. To achieve this goal, a new research agenda is needed that focuses on: quantifying the ecosystem services provided by fresh waters; quantifying the economic, social and nutritional benefits of inland fisheries; improving assessments designed to evaluate fisheries exploitation potential; and examining feedbacks between fisheries, ecosystem productivity and aquatic biodiversity. Accomplishing these objectives will require merging natural and social science approaches to address coupled social-ecological system dynamics.     

Lakes in the era of global change: moving beyond single-lake thinking in maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem services

The Anthropocene presents formidable threats to freshwater ecosystems. Lakes are especially vulnerable and important at the same time. They cover only a small area worldwide but harbour high levels of biodiversity and contribute disproportionately to ecosystem services. Lakes differ with respect to their general type (e.g. land-locked, drainage, floodplain and large lakes) and position in the landscape (e.g. highland versus lowland lakes), which contribute to the dynamics of these systems. Lakes should be generally viewed as ‘meta-systems’, whereby biodiversity is strongly affected by species dispersal, and ecosystem dynamics are contributed by the flow of matter and substances among locations in a broader waterscape context. Lake connectivity in the waterscape and position in the landscape determine the degree to which a lake is prone to invasion by non-native species and accumulation of harmful substances. Highly connected lakes low in the landscape accumulate nutrients and pollutants originating from ecosystems higher in the landscape. The monitoring and restoration of lake biodiversity and ecosystem services should consider the fact that a high degree of dynamism is present at local, regional and global scales. However, local and regional monitoring may be plagued by the unpredictability of ecological phenomena, hindering adaptive management of lakes. Although monitoring data are increasingly becoming available to study responses of lakes to global change, we still lack suitable integration of models for entire waterscapes. Research across disciplinary boundaries is needed to address the challenges that lakes face in the Anthropocene because they may play an increasingly important role in harbouring unique aquatic biota as well as providing ecosystem goods and services in the future.     

不同生态恢复方式下生态系统服务与生物多样性恢复效果的整合分析

全球范围内关键生态系统服务的减少使人类社会面临巨大的威胁,生物多样性是生态系统提供各种产品和服务的基础。生态恢复工程对退化的生态系统服务和生物多样性进行修复,对于缓解人类环境压力具有非常重要的意义。长期的理论和实践工作形成了多种生态恢复措施:(1)单纯基于生态系统自我设计的自然恢复方式,(2)人为设计对环境条件进行干预,反馈影响生态系统的自我设计,(3)人为设计对目标种群和生态系统进行直接干预和重建。这3类恢复方式可以在不同程度上定向的影响生态系统的恢复进程,反映了人类对生态系统的低度、中度和高度介入。哪种恢复方式和介入程度能够实现更好的恢复效果,是生态恢复学中的一个关键问题,但到目前为止,虽广有争议,却无定量的分析和结论。针对这个空白,通过对ISI Web of Knowledge数据库中生态恢复相关文献的整合分析,基于数学统计的方法定量比较在不同条件下低度介入(自然恢复)、中度介入(环境干预)和高度介入(直接干预)3种恢复方式对生态系统服务与生物多样性的恢复效果。论文从4个方面展开研究:(1)低度、中度、高度介入生态恢复方式的划分,(2)比较3大类介入方式对生态系统服务和生物多样性恢复效果的差异,(3)不同气候条件、生态系统类型和恢复时间等背景因素的影响,(4)生物多样性恢复和生态系统服务恢复之间的关系。研究结果揭示了不同生态恢复方式的适用条件,以及对生物多样性和生态系统恢复相互关系的作用,对生态恢复实践中恢复方式的选择有指导作用。对未来的研究也有启示意义,如针对特定生态系统服务或具体研究问题进一步探索低度、中度和高度介入生态恢复方式的作用规律和机制;将地区的社会经济水平、生态系统的受损程度等因素纳入生态恢复方式的考察,以最优化生态恢复成本-效率等。     

Think ratio! A stoichiometric view on biodiversity–ecosystem functioning research

Ecological stoichiometry (ES) has become one of the most pervasive theoretical frameworks in environmental sciences and biology in the last two decades. ES allows predicting processes on all organizational levels from subcellular structures to ecosystems by relating the elemental composition and demand of organisms to the relative availability of resources. However, ES has been rarely used to understand and predict the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (BEF), although ES would be ideally suited as it makes predictions on both population processes underlying biodiversity as well as on matter transformations underlying ecosystem processes. Here, we propose to link the two fields of research on ES and BEF relationships and highlight a number of potential avenues for further research. First, we cast a stoichiometric view on drivers of biodiversity change. Second, we address the stoichiometric underpinning of biodiversity–productivity relationships. Third, we discuss potential interactions between stoichiometry and diversity in a food web context.     

贵州草海湿地生态系统服务价值评估

贵州草海是中国三大高原淡水湖泊之一,其湿地生态系统能给人类提供产品和服务,为社会可持续发展提供基础,由于其价值没有被量化,人们对其重要性缺乏直观认识,导致了湿地的不合理开发及利用。根据草海湿地的特征,运用市场价值法、影子工程法、问卷调查法等定量评估了2010年草海湿地生态系统最终服务价值,包括供给服务、调节服务和文化服务。结果表明,草海湿地生态系统服务总价值为4.39×108元,其中供给服务价值为0.74×108元,调节服务价值为1.14×108元,文化服务价值为2.51×108元;所计算的10项服务按其价值大小排序为:休闲娱乐生物多样性与景观资源保护水资源供给调蓄洪水气候调节补给地下水大气组分调节原材料生产水质净化食物生产;单位面积服务价值为16.40×104元/hm2,是2010年贵州省威宁县单位面积GDP产值的16.91倍。从研究结果来看,草海湿地生态系统服务价值较大,为草海湿地的管理及保护提供了一定参考依据。     

Optimal control of population recovery – the role of economic restoration threshold

A variety of ecological systems around the world have been damaged in recent years, either by natural factors such as invasive species, storms and global change or by direct human activities such as overfishing and water pollution. Restoration of these systems to provide ecosystem services entails significant economic benefits. Thus, choosing how and when to restore in an optimal fashion is important, but has not been well studied. Here we examine a general model where population growth can be induced or accelerated by investing in active restoration. We show that the most cost‐effective method to restore an ecosystem dictates investment until the population approaches an ‘economic restoration threshold’, a density above which the ecosystem should be left to recover naturally. Therefore, determining this threshold is a key general approach for guiding efficient restoration management, and we demonstrate how to calculate this threshold for both deterministic and stochastic ecosystems.     

Attitudes toward forest diversity and forest ecosystem services—a cross-cultural comparison between China and Switzerland

Aims Despite the current interest in services provided by ecosystems and the role of biodiversity, the relationship among human attitudes, biodiversity and ecosystem services has hardly been investigated. Moreover, few studies have examined attitudes toward nature in cross-cultural comparisons. This study investigates the attitudes of Chinese and Swiss people, both environmental experts and laypersons, toward forest biodiversity and ecosystem services.Methods Overall, 640 people in China and Switzerland were interviewed with the help of a standardized questionnaire. In each country, the study population was equally divided into an urban (80 city dwellers and 80 environmental science students) and a rural (80 forest visitors and 80 farmers) study group. The 15-minute interviews took place in the cities of Beijing and Zurich and in the rural forested areas of Dujiangyan, Sichuan Province and Lake Sempach, canton Lucerne. Attitudes toward forest biodiversity were investigated with the help of color photographs that depicted both monocultures and species-rich forests typical for China and Switzerland. Attitudes toward ecosystem services were investigated with the help of 13 statements on provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services of forests.Important findings On average, Chinese participants showed no strong preferences for biodiversity, whereas the Swiss clearly preferred species-rich forests over monocultures. However, Chinese environmental science students did prefer species-rich forests and attributed to them a higher conservation value because of their higher biodiversity. Although there were no strong preferences for Chinese versus Swiss forests, all participants correctly answered that Chinese forests are more species rich in terms of plants and animals and thus found them less boring and more interesting, but also less managed, than Swiss forests. All participants highly valued the ecosystem services provided by forests; especially the regulating and supporting ones. Environmental science students and farmers placed more importance on the provisioning services, whereas city dwellers and forest visitors emphasized more on the regulating services. The disjuncture between the high ecological quality of species-rich forests and their low attractiveness to Chinese study participants points to a potential conflict between conservation policies and the public's preferences. A better communication of ecosystem services provided by forest biodiversity to the public might change these preferences in favor of ecological quality, as already observed among Chinese environmental science students.