Characterization of diatom assemblages in mid-altitude streams of NW Italy

Following the European Water Framework Directive, this study aims to be the first step to (i) identify diatom type assemblages in unpolluted streams in NW Italy, and (ii) find which ecological factors explain most of the variation. To achieve this, we collected physical, chemical and benthic community data from four streams in NW Italy from 2001 to 2004, for a total of 72 samples. All sampling sites were between 200 m a.s.l. and 800 m a.s.l., but differed in the dominant lithological substrate, i.e. alluvial or siliceous. Relationships between diatom communities and environmental factors were examined using canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), while Indicator Species Analysis was used to define characterizing species and accompanying species of three environmental groups identified by CCA: (1) high water quality and medium saline content, (2) high water quality and low saline content, (3) poor water quality. The diatom assemblages of the three groups of sites differed significantly, as shown by the Multi-Response Permutation Procedure. There were strong correlations between diatoms and environmental factors, especially chlorides (also highly correlated with sulphates and carbonate hardness), nitrate concentration and conductivity. The group 1 assemblage was typical of the alluvial Alpine streams with medium saline content and was characterized by mostly oligosaprobic/β-mesosaprobic taxa such as Cymbella affinis, Diatoma ehrenbergii and Staurosira pinnata. The species assemblage found in the siliceous Alpine rivers with good water quality make them suitable reference sites for a benthic diatom community. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at and accessible for authorised users Handling editor: K. Martens     

Relationship Between Molecular Structure and Thermo-mechanical Properties of Candelilla Wax and Amides Derived from (<Emphasis Type="Italic">R</Emphasis>)-12-Hydroxystearic Acid as Gelators of Safflower Oil

In this research, we studied the relationship between the molecular structure of (R)-12-hydroxyoctadecanamide, (R)-N-propyl-12-hydroxyoctadecanamide, and (R)-N-octadecyl-12-hydroxyoctadecanamide and the thermo-mechanical properties of their 2% (wt/wt) organogels developed using safflower oil high in oleic acid (HOSFO) as the liquid phase. Candelilla wax (CW), a well-known edible gelling additive whose main component is hentriacontane, also was studied for comparative purposes. The results obtained show that the attractive interactions (i.e., hydrogen bonding and dipolar interactions) between amide groups and between hydroxyl groups present in the amides resulted in organogels with higher melting temperature, heat of melting, and crystallization parameters than those found in the CW organogel. The rheological parameters associated to the strength of the amide or CW-based gels developed in HOSFO (i.e., yield stress and elastic modulus) seem to be associated with the nature of amide groups (i.e., primary or secondary amide) and the increase in the length of the self-assembly molecular unit (i.e., L value determined by X-ray diffraction) and therefore to the extent of London dispersion forces along the hydrocarbon chain. The creep and recovery measurements allowed an evaluation among the internal structures of the different organogels and demonstrated that independent of the hydrogen bonding and dipolar interaction provided by the amide and the hydroxyl groups, the increase in the hydrocarbon chain length results in higher organogel resistance to deformation and higher instant recovery capacity. However, the stabilization of the self-assembly unit through polar groups (i.e., –CONH₂ in HOA) reduces organogel elasticity but provides a higher extended recovery capacity. The results reported in this investigation showed some relationships between gelator structure and the thermo-mechanical properties of low-molecular-mass organic gelator amides. Our long-term objective is to understand the organogelation process to eventually develop trans-free vegetable oil-based food products with novel textures for the consumers.     

Lokalisation der Peroxidase-Isoenzyme in Protoplasten und Zellwänden von Nicotiana tabacum L.

Summary Upon disk-electrophoresis with guaiacol as a substrate the peroxidase-isoenzymes of Nicotiana tabacum (L.) were localized on the gels in two anodic and two cathodic groups. By preparation of protoplasts and isolation of cell walls it was possible to show that only cathodic enzymes are located in the protoplasts in measurable amounts, whereas all the isoenzymes, anodic and cathodic, can be found associated with cell walls. The different groups of isoenzymes are bound to the cell wall in different ways as evidenced by differences in their extration. It seems possible that different biological functions are associated with the different groups of isoenzymes.The isoenzyme patterns of different organs and tissues of tobacco show qualitative differences only in the anodic (i.e. wall located) isoenzymes. It is suggested that the ontogenetic change in peroxidase-patterns is direct evidence of biochemical differences in the cell walls of the different tissues and organs.

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Lokalisation der Peroxidase-Isoenzyme in Protoplasten und Zellwänden von Nicotiana tabacum L.

     

Esquamula lacrimiformis n. g., n. sp., a New Member of Thaumatomonads that Lacks Siliceous Scales

We report a new naked cercozoan flagellate, Esquamula lacrimiformis n. g., n. sp., collected from a sandy beach in Japan. Its cells were 4.5–11.3 μm in length and 3.9–8.8 μm in width and possess two unequal flagella. Cells move in a smooth gliding motion and have a trailing long posterior flagellum. Phylogenetic analyses with small and large subunit ribosomal RNA genes revealed that E. lacrimiformis forms a novel lineage within the Thaumatomonadida, the members of which are flagellates with siliceous scales. However, our light and electron microscopic observations indicated that E. lacrimiformis cells do not possess any siliceous structures. Furthermore, other morphological characteristics, such as the shape of the extrusomes and the structural arrangement of the microbody, were clearly different from those of previously described thaumatomonads. On the basis of a combination of these morphological observations and our phylogenetic analyses, we conclude that E. lacrimiformis should be treated as a new species of a new genus and placed into a new family, Esquamulidae n. fam., under Thaumatomonadida.     

The Construction of Turrets for Nest Ventilation in the Grass-Cutting Ant Atta vollenweideri: Import and Assembly of Building Materials

Besides the excavation of underground nest chambers, Atta vollenweideri grass-cutting ants build ventilation turrets on the topmost openings of their huge nests. Turret construction was studied in a laboratory colony, addressing the question whether turrets are simply heaps of disposed soil, or result from the import and a particular spatial arrangement of materials. The colony was daily offered different building materials, i.e., clay, coarse and fine sands, which workers collected and deposited around a nest opening to construct a turret. After 10 days, the spatial arrangement of the different building materials, offered either simultaneously or consecutively in independent experiments, was characterized via thin sections and micromorphological analysis of the turret’s walls. Workers did not select particular materials to be imported for turret building, but were selective in their spatial distribution and assembly into the turret structure. Particular types of microstructures were observed depending on the available materials, such as simple piles of sands, porous fabrics only composed of clay pellets, or fabrics with clay and sands combined. Turrets were very dynamic structures: while most imported materials were initially piled up at the shortest distance from the source, a marked subsequent material redistribution occurred as the turret grew, resulting in a new, mixed structure. Material re-assembly was particular evident when clay and sands were offered consecutively: a remarkable tendency to construct microstructures combining both materials was observed, i.e., clays were mobilized and included in sandy walls, and sands were intercalated in much compact clay walls. Irrespective of the materials used, walls showed a marked regular porosity in the range 50–60%, with the exception of secondary galleries that occasionally permeated the turret structure, which evinced lower porosity and therefore a more compact microstructure. Ants appeared to respond to local variations in the structural stability of the construction, since clay coatings smoothed and reinforced the surface of unstable sandy gallery walls. The observed building responses appear to be aimed at the maintenance of a porous yet mechanically-stable structure. The attained turret porosity may represent a compromise between high structural stability and low construction costs because of savings in material import.     

Biochemical characterization of carotenoids in two species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trentepohlia</Emphasis> (Trentepohliales,Chlorophyta)

Two species of Trentepohlia, i.e., Trentepohlia aurea and Trentepohlia cucullata were collected from walls and tree bark, respectively, at two different seasons in a year. The total carotenoid content in both the species is very high during winter but decreases significantly during summer. By spectroscopic analysis, it was found that. T. aurea and T. cucullata growing in natural habitats are rich sources of carotenoids. The individual carotenoids were separated, identified, and estimated by HPLC, and identified as β-carotene along with some other carotenoids, i.e., neoxanthin, lutein, β-cryptoxanthin, β,γ-carotene, β,ε-carotene (absent during summer).     

Scale Biogenesis in Synurophycean Protists: Phylogenetic Implications

The Synurophyceae is a class of golden-brown, freshwater, photosynthetic flagellates with a world-wide distribution. A well-developed taxonomy exists where genera and species are distinguished by colony or cell morphology or by the siliceous scales that cover the cells. However, phylogenetic relationships within the class are poorly understood, and incongruous taxonomic concepts occur. This study reviews scale morphology from field-collected samples and controlled culturing experiments as well as from studies of scale biogenesis. The information is used to identify homologous silicification surfaces among taxa and to document the diversity of the resulting scale structures. Thirty-two character states are coded into 11 characters in a cladistic analysis of 13 pivotal taxa. Colonial species are emphasized. One most-parsimonious phylogenetic tree is found (HI = 0, CI = 1). Synura lapponica is shown to be most closely related to Tessellaria volvocina. S. sphagnicola emerges at the base of the tree. Mallomonas caudata and the S. petersenii clade emerge from within Sectio Synura. Chrysodidymus synuroideus appears as an ancestral taxon in the Synura spinosa-like clade (i.e., Series Spinosae). The poorly understood developmental bases for some characters, especially secondary scale structures, are identified and may help focus future research.     

The micro-biota of a sub-surface monument the medieval chapel of St. Virgil (Vienna, Austria)

The medieval chapel of St. Virgil is located sub-surface beneath the square of the dome of St. Stephen, in the heart of Vienna. The walls of the chapel are in direct contact with the surrounding soil. The water migrating horizontally into the walls of the chapel carries a huge load of soluble salts which crystallize on the surface of the walls and within the material. This phenomenon is causing material losses and destruction of original medieval fineries and paintings. Moreover, the salt creates special living conditions for microbes growing on and in the walls which is characterized by a high osmotic stress. The diversity of the micro-biota was studied both by cultivation and molecular techniques [a combination of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of PCR-amplified DNA encoding 16S rRNA and the construction of clone libraries]. The fungal diversity was found to be relatively low, albeit cell counts show more than 10⁵ colony forming units per gram of wall material. In the contrary, the diversity of bacteria was found to be high (more than 8 different genera). Furthermore, a community of extremely halophilic archaea was detected consisting of different species of two predominant genera, i.e., Halococcus and Halobacterium.     

Body temperature and territory selection by males of the speckled wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria): what makes a forest sunlit patch a rendezvous site?

1. Insects locate mobile resources like prey items or mates using either sit‐and‐wait (‘perching’) or active (‘patrolling’) searching strategies. The sit‐and‐wait strategy can be accompanied by defending and monopolising a site through territorial behaviour. 2. The present study focuses on the territorial perching behaviour in males of the speckled wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria L.). Recent studies suggested that the selection of territories (i.e. sunlit patches on the forest floor) is driven by structural characteristics of the site that affect male visual detection. However, given that adult butterflies are heliothermic organisms and that forests provide a diverse array of light environments, it seems likely that thermal aspects may also be used for territory selection. 3. We tested whether used and unused sunlit patches differed in thermal profile under field conditions in a Belgian woodland. We also used dummy butterflies to quantify variation in operative thoracic temperature and to calculate heating rates within (i.e. different vegetation structures) and between patches. 4. Sunlit patches occupied by a territorial male were larger, and were more frequently characterised by low vegetation structures compared with empty sunlit patches. It took longer to reach optimal thorax temperature (starting from a fixed suboptimal body temperature) in small patches compared with large patches. 5. We suggest that aspects of visual detection need to be combined with thermal aspects to fully understand territory selection in the speckled wood butterfly, as synergetic and/or trade‐off effects of ambient temperature, solar radiation, and canopy/vegetation structure may be involved.     

Domain motion and interdomain hot spots in a multidomain enzyme

The aim of this article is to analyze conformational changes by comparing 10 different structures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa phosphomannomutase/phosphoglucomutase (PMM/PGM), a four‐domain enzyme in which both substrate binding and catalysis require substantial movement of the C‐terminal domain. We focus on changes in interdomain and active site crevices using a method called computational solvent mapping rather than superimposing the structures. The method places molecular probes (i.e., small organic molecules containing various functional groups) around the protein to find hot spots. One of the most important hot spots is in the active site, consistent with the ability of the enzyme to bind both glucose and mannose phosphosugar substrates. The protein has eight additional hot spots at domain‐domain interfaces and hinge regions. The locations and nature of six of these hot spots vary between the open, half‐open, and closed conformers of the enzyme, in good agreement with the ligand‐induced conformational changes. In the closed structures the number of probe clusters at the hinge region significantly depends on the position of the phosphorylated oxygen in the substrate (e.g., glucose 1‐phosphate versus glucose 6‐phosphate), but the protein remains almost unchanged in terms of the overall RMSD, indicating that computational solvent mapping is a more sensitive approach to detect changes in binding sites and interdomain crevices. Focusing on multidomain proteins we show that the subresolution conformational differences revealed by the mapping are in fact significant, and present a general statistical method of analysis to determine the significance of rigid body domain movements in X‐ray structures.     

O-4-Linked coniferyl and sinapyl aldehydes in lignifying cell walls are the main targets of the Wiesner (phloroglucinol-HCl) reaction

Summary.  The nature and specificity of the Wiesner test (phloroglucinol-HCl reagent) for the aromatic aldehyde fraction contained in lignins is studied. Phloroglucinol reacted in ethanol-hydrochloric acid with coniferyl aldehyde, sinapyl aldehyde, vanillin, and syringaldehyde to yield either pink pigments (in the case of hydroxycinnamyl aldehydes) or red-brown pigments (in the case of hydroxybenzaldehydes). However, coniferyl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol, and highly condensed dehydrogenation polymers derived from these cinnamyl alcohols and aldehydes did not react with phloroglucinol in ethanol-hydrochloric acid. The differences in the reactivity of phloroglucinol with hydroxycinnamyl aldehydes and their dehydrogenation polymers may be explained by the fact that, in the latter, the unsubstituted (α,β-unsaturated) cinnamaldehyde functional group, which is responsible for the dye reaction, is lost due to lateral chain cross-linking reactions involving the β carbon. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thioacidolysis analyses of phloroglucinol-positive lignifying plant cell walls belonging to the plant species Zinnia elegans L., Capsicum annuum var. annuum, Populus alba L., and Pinus halepensis L. demonstrated the presence of 4-O-linked hydroxycinnamyl aldehyde end groups and 4-O-linked 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-benzaldehyde (vanillin) end groups in lignins. However, given the relatively low abundance of 4-O-linked vanillin in lignifying cell walls and the low extinction coefficient of its red-brown phloroglucinol adduct, it is unlikely that vanillin contributes to a great extent to the phloroglucinol-positive stain reaction. These results suggest that the phloroglucinol-HCl pink stain of lignifying xylem cell walls actually reveals the 4-O-linked hydroxycinnamyl aldehyde structures contained in lignins. Histochemical studies showed that these aldehyde structures are assembled, as in the case of coniferyl aldehyde, during the early stages of xylem cell wall lignification. Received April 17, 2002; accepted May 21, 2002; published online October 31, 2002 RID="*" ID="*" Correspondence and reprints: Department of Plant Biology, University of Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain. Abbreviations: DHP dehydrogenation polymers; FT-IR spectroscopy Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.     

Harmful algae on tropical coral reefs: Bottom-up eutrophication and top-down herbivory

A conceptual paradigm, the “Relative Dominance Model”, provides the perspective to assess the interactive external forcing-mechanisms controlling phase shifts among the dominant benthic functional groups on tropical coral reefs [i.e., microalgal turfs and frondose macroalgae (often harmful) versus reef-building corals and calcareous coralline algae (mostly beneficial due to accretion of calcareous reef framework)]. Manipulative experiments, analyses of existing communities and bioassays tested hypotheses that the relative dominances of these functional groups are mediated by two principal controlling factors: nutrients (i.e., bottom-up control) and herbivory (i.e., top-down control). The results show that reduced nutrients alone do not preclude fleshy algal growth when herbivory is low, and high herbivory alone does not prevent fleshy algal growth when nutrients are elevated. However, reduced nutrients in combination with high herbivory virtually eliminate all forms of fleshy micro- and macro-algae. The findings reveal considerable complexity in that increases in bottom-up nutrient controls and their interactions stimulate harmful fleshy algal blooms (that can alter the abundance patterns among functional groups, even under intense herbivory); conversely, elevated nutrients inhibit the growth of ecologically beneficial reef-building corals. The results show even further complexity in that nutrients also act directly as either limiting factors (e.g., physiological stresses) or as stimulatory mechanisms (e.g., growth enhancing factors), as well as functioning indirectly by influencing competitive outcomes. Herbivory directly reduces fleshy-algal biomass, which indirectly (via competitive release) favors the expansion of grazer-resistant reef-building corals and coralline algae. Because of the sensitive nature of direct/indirect and stimulating/limiting interacting factors, coral reefs are particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic reversal effects that decrease top-down controls and, concomitantly, increase bottom-up controls, dramatically altering ecosystem resiliencies.     

Teliospores of smut fungi teliospore connections, appendages, and germ pores studied by electron microscopy; phylogenetic discussion of characteristics of teliospores

Summary Special features of teliospores in smut fungi are described, including teliospore connections, appendages, and germ pores. Balls of teliospores in species of many different genera cohere by remnants of hyphal walls, sheaths, and sometimes interlocking ornamentation. Teliospores are connected in pairs in species ofMycosyrinx andGeminago by special local structures. Appendages can be formed locally by persistent material from the sheath (Cintractia, Anthracoidea, Sphacelotheca), thickened parts of the spore wall (e.g.,Georgefischeria, Jamesdicksonia, Rhamphospora, Tolyposporella), or persistent walls of sporogenous hyphae (Rhamphospora, genera of the Tilletia relationship). Species ofGeorgefischeria, Jamesdicksonia, andTolyposporella have teliospore walls composed of more than three layers of different electron density. Germ areas corresponding to thinner parts of the spore wall are known, e.g., for species ofAnthracoidea, Cintractia, andUstilago infecting members of the family Poaceae, while distinct germ pores, one per teliospore, are found in some species ofThecaphora, Tolyposporium, andSporisorium. Teliospores ofMycosyrinx cissi have a germination ring. Characteristics of teliospores are used to discuss the phylogeny of smut fungi. A phylogenetic tree in accordance with teliospore characteristics is compared to those obtained from ultrastructural characteristics of host-parasite interaction, of septal pores, and from sequence data. Aspects of teliospore development help to define taxa at a high systematic level (Entorrhizales, Ustilaginales, Tilletiales/Entylomatales, Microbotryaceae), while details of ornamentation ontogeny delimit groups of genera (e.g., genera related toUstilago on members of the Poaceae andSporisorium, Cintractia andAnthracoidea, Tilletia) or single genera (e.g.,Melanopsichium, Dermatosorus, Mycosyrinx, Doassinga, Rhamphospora). Types of ornamentation (warty, reticulate), middle layers, teliospore balls, and germ pores evolved repeatedly by convergence. The smut teliospore itself probably evolved independently at least twice, or perhaps three (or more) times, in the Microbotryales, in the Entorrhizales, and in a common ancestor of the remainder of the Ustilaginomycetes.Part 166 in the series Studies in Heterobasidiomycetes from the Botanical Institute, University of Tübingen.     

生态学中的点格局研究概况及其在国内的应用

点格局分析是研究生态学格局的工具之一,近年来在生态学中的应用越来越多。为深入了解点格局分析方法在国内的研究与应用情况,以所总结的研究进展、一般步骤和基本要点为背景,分析评述了1996—2015年期间以点格局为主题的国内中文核心期刊文献。结果表明,在国内生态学格局研究中,应用研究占据主导地位,研究对象广泛,包括以树木为主的乔、灌、草等不同生活型的植物,甚至包括景观;基础研究,包括概括性统计量、零模型与点过程模型等方面,以及专用软件工具包的开发等研究薄弱。在应用中存在一定问题,主要表现为:概括性统计量使用单一,且以Ripley的K-函数及其变形为主;零模型(或点过程模型)是科学问题的统计表达,但是有一半以上的研究未明确给出零模型。建议在未来应用研究中重视多种统计量的组合使用和原假设的建立,在探讨热带、亚热带森林等具有复杂空间结构系统的多样性格局时,考虑对象的不同世代和系统的不同垂直层次,并加强多变量或三维概括性统计量的开发、点格局分析方法与动态过程模型的结合研究等工作。     

Genetic differences between the Chinese and European races of the common carp

Summary Relative growth rates of six genetic groups of common carp were compared in small netting cages and in earthen ponds. These groups of carp included an isolate of the Chinese Big Belly Carp, its crossbred with a European isolate, and four European progenies, purebreds or crossbreds. Five different environments were produced in the ponds, mainly by varying the stocking rates of carp. Each of the (ten) cages was treated as a different environment. Each cage and each pond were stocked with random samples of each genotype, i.e., communal testing was carried out. The performance of a given genotype in a given environment was estimated from its weight gain in that environment. The mean weight gain of all groups, stocked into a given environment, was taken as an estimate of that environment as it influenced the growth of carp. The characteristics of the regression of growth of a given genotype on the environment in which it grew [i.e., the coefficient of regression (b) and the Y intercept (a)] are taken as measures of its adaptation to that environment. No real differences in adaptation to pond versus cage conditions were isolated for four of the tested groups, the Chinese x European crossbred, the two European crossbreds and one of the European purebreds. The Chinese carp showed a specific adaptation to growth in ponds (or a lack of adaptation to growth in cages), whereas Dor-70 was specifically adapted to cage conditions. These results may be explained by the genetic history of the two lines. The Big Belly Carp was domesticated under conditions of Chinese subsistence aquaculture, which apparently generated an adaptation to gathering and utilizing natural foods. These are prominently absent in cages. Dor-70 was produced in a long-term selection experiment, which apparently generated a response for growth in cages. These results may be of applicative value, if common carp were to be considered as candidates for commercial cage aquaculture. It would then be important to use strains like Dor-70, which are adapted to these conditions, and avoid strains like the Chinese Big Belly carp.     

ECTODESMATA AND FOLIAR ABSORPTION

Franke , Wolfgang . (U. Bonn, Germany.) Ectodesmata and foliar absorption. Amer. Jour. Bot. 48(8): 683–691. Illus. 1961.—Plasmodesmata, called ectodesmata, in the outer walls of epidermal cells, have been investigated. Their occurrence and distribution in the epidermis of leaves of Plantago major and Helxine soleirolii have been examined in connection with foliar absorption. Leaf structures such as guard-cells, conical hairs, anticlinal walls and the epidermal cells adjacent to the leaf veins have been shown consistently to contain large numbers of ectodesmata, while in neighboring cells ectodesmata may be low in number or lacking. The same areas also are known to be especially pervious to water and dissolved dyes applied to the surface of the leaf. From special investigations, it appears that certain solutions that form visible crystals and precipitates in the outer wall enter the epidermal cell wall in localized pathways. The localization of these bodies coincides with that of ectodesmata. Therefore, it is concluded that the ectodesmata may be the pathways for transport of substances from the outside to the interior of tissues and vice versa. Nutrients applied to the surface of leaves are thought to enter by the same pathways, i.e., the ectodesmata, as those in which the penetration can be visibly detected. Some phenomena of foliar absorption which confirm this theory are explained in connection with the presence of ectodesmata.     

MORPHOLOGICAL DIVERSIFICATION AND ADAPTIVE RADIATION: A COMPARISON OF TWO DIVERSE LIZARD CLADES

We compared the morphological diversity (i.e., the amount of morphological space occupied) of two similar clades, the lizard genera Anolis and Sceloporus. These species-rich monophyletic clades are similar in body size, age of origin, and many aspects of their natural history. We examined a number of morphological traits whose variation is likely to represent adaptation to different aspects of the environment, including body size, limb proportions, head dimensions, and tail length. Examination of the position of species in multidimensional space, based on a principal components analysis, indicates that the morphological diversity of Anolis, which we refer to as disparity, is significantly greater than that of Sceloporus. One potential explanation for this pattern is that morphological diversification in Anolis was facilitated by the evolution of subdigital toe-pads, which allow anoles to use the environment in ways not available to Sceloporus. The geographic location of diversification (tropical and subtropical for Anolis, arid for Sceloporus) may also have been important.     

The productive and reproductive biology of flowering plants

Summary The seasonal growth cycles and dry matter partitioning of Heloniopsis orientalis (Thunb.) C. Tanaka (Liliaceae) into its component organs throughout the year were studied and compared with one another in five selected populations at different altitudes in Toyama Prefecture, Japan (i.e., 100, 200, 900, 1,900, and 2,600 m above sea level). In addition, reproductive energy allociation (RA) and reproductive capacities of these five populations were critically analyzed in relation to environmental factors of each habitat.As a result, a remarkable cline in the growth cycle, dry matter allocation as well as significant reproductive characteristics including reproductive capacity and allocation was discovered along the environmental gradients (e.g., the length of the growing season) present as a result of different elevations. There is a clear negative correlation between the reproductive capacities and allocations in these five populations (r=0.9236, P<0.05), i.e., the populations of H. orientalis allocate increasingly greater energy to reproductive activities in response to the increase in elevation, but, on the contrary, show a marked decreasing tendency in reproductive capacity. Likewise, there is a tendency not only of increased energy allocation to total reproductive structures, but also toward producing a single propagule in successively harsher habitats. Specifically, the RA to total reproductive structures at the fruiting stage incrases from 9.97%, 13.03%, 15.25%, 23.06% to 25.52%, and also the relative amount of the energy invested to producing a single propagule increases from 1.000, 1.298, 2.496, 5.512 to 6.079 in response to an increase in elevation.