Evolutionary responses to climate change in parasitic systems

Species may respond to climate change in many ecological and evolutionary ways. In this simulation study, we focus on the concurrent evolution of three traits in response to climate change, namely dispersal probability, temperature tolerance (or niche width), and temperature preference (optimal habitat). More specifically, we consider evolutionary responses in host species involved in different types of interaction, that is parasitism or commensalism, and for low or high costs of a temperature tolerance–fertility trade‐off (cost of generalization). We find that host species potentially evolve all three traits simultaneously in response to increasing temperature but that the evolutionary response interacts and may be compensatory depending on the conditions. The evolutionary adjustment of temperature preference is slower in the parasitism than in commensalism scenario. Parasitism, in turn, selects for higher temperature tolerance and increased dispersal. High costs for temperature tolerance (i.e. generalization) restrict evolution of tolerance and thus lead to a faster response in temperature preference than that observed under low costs. These results emphasize the possible role of biotic interactions and the importance of ‘multidimensional’ evolutionary responses to climate change.     

The mechanism of host-induced germination in root parasitic plants

Chemical signals known as strigolactones (SLs) were discovered more than 50 years ago as host-derived germination stimulants of parasitic plants in the Orobanchaceae. Strigolactone-responsive germination is an essential adaptation of obligate parasites in this family, which depend upon a host for survival. Several species of obligate parasites, including witchweeds (Striga, Alectra spp.) and broomrapes (Orobanche, Phelipanche spp.), are highly destructive agricultural weeds that pose a significant threat to global food security. Understanding how parasites sense SLs and other host-derived stimulants will catalyze the development of innovative chemical and biological control methods. This review synthesizes the recent discoveries of strigolactone receptors in parasitic Orobanchaceae, their signaling mechanism, and key steps in their evolution.

A family of receptors that evolved in the Orobanchaceae family enable seeds of parasitic plants to sense strigolactones from a nearby host root and germinate.

Advances

• Strigolactone perception by parasite seed is mediated by a clade of neofunctionalized KAI2d proteins that evolved from a receptor that mediates karrikin responses in other plants.
• KAI2d proteins use a similar mechanism to perceive SLs as D14, which mediates growth responses to SLs in nonparasites, but activate different signaling pathways.
• Crystal structure analyses and chemical probes reveal features of KAI2d ligand-binding pockets that contribute to their specificity.

     

Effects of environmental change on emerging parasitic diseases

Ecological disturbances exert an influence on the emergence and proliferation of malaria and zoonotic parasitic diseases, including, Leishmaniasis, cryptosporidiosis, giardiasis, trypanosomiasis, schistosomiasis, filariasis, onchocerciasis, and loiasis. Each environmental change, whether occurring as a natural phenomenon or through human intervention, changes the ecological balance and context within which disease hosts or vectors and parasites breed, develop, and transmit disease. Each species occupies a particular ecological niche and vector species sub-populations are distinct behaviourally and genetically as they adapt to man-made environments. Most zoonotic parasites display three distinct life cycles: sylvatic, zoonotic, and anthroponotic. In adapting to changed environmental conditions, including reduced non-human population and increased human population, some vectors display conversion from a primarily zoophyllic to primarily anthrophyllic orientation. Deforestation and ensuing changes in landuse, human settlement, commercial development, road construction, water control systems (dams, canals, irrigation systems, reservoirs), and climate, singly, and in combination have been accompanied by global increases in morbidity and mortality from emergent parasitic disease. The replacement of forests with crop farming, ranching, and raising small animals can create supportive habitats for parasites and their host vectors. When the land use of deforested areas changes, the pattern of human settlement is altered and habitat fragmentation may provide opportunities for exchange and transmission of parasites to the heretofore uninfected humans. Construction of water control projects can lead to shifts in such vector populations as snails and mosquitoes and their parasites. Construction of roads in previously inaccessible forested areas can lead to erosion, and stagnant ponds by blocking the flow of streams when the water rises during the rainy season. The combined effects of environmentally detrimental changes in local land use and alterations in global climate disrupt the natural ecosystem and can increase the risk of transmission of parasitic diseases to the human population.     

气候变化对野生植物的影响及保护对策

以温室气体浓度持续上升、全球气候变暖为主要特征的全球气候变化对野生植物及生物多样性造成的潜在影响, 已经引起了国际学者的高度关注。本文总结了全球气候变化的现状与未来趋势, 概述了中国野生植物的保护及管理现状, 从不同侧面综述了国内外关于全球气候变暖对野生植物影响的研究进展和动态, 包括气候带北移、两极冰山退缩、高海拔山地变暖、海平面上升、早春温度提前升高、荒漠草原土壤增温、旱涝急转弯等对野生植物造成的影响以及气候变暖对种间关系和敏感植物类群的影响, 并从气候变化背景下全球生态系统敏感度、植物多样性、物种迁移与气候槽(sink areas)、物种适应与灭绝以及物候节律5个方面分析了未来全球变暖影响野生植物的总体趋势。在以后的野生植物保护与管理中, 应确定全球气候变化的植物多样性敏感区, 重点关注对气候变化敏感的植物类群以及气候要素改变植物-动物互作关系中的野生植物, 自然保护区的建设要重点考虑全球气候变化的影响, 通过在全球范围内对野生植物分布和种群变化进行长期、系统的追踪监测, 建立有效的数据库, 发展野生植物迁地保护的保育技术及信息网络, 发展有关野生植物对全球气候变化响应的量化指标及相应的模型。最后提出应将全球气候变化下野生植物保护与管理列入相关基金会的研究重点。     

气候变暖对陆生植物的影响

温度是影响植物生长、发育和功能的重要环境因子,是调节许多陆地生态系统生物地球化学过程的关键因素之一.全球气候持续变暖直接或间接地对陆生植物产生不同程度的影响.本文从不同方面分析了植物对温度升高及其它生态环境因子变化交互作用下的生理生态适应机制,包括生态系统的土壤呼吸、植物的气体交换、水分关系、生物量和生产力的响应等方面的研究进展,并就未来开展陆生植物对气候变暖响应研究提出加强和改进的设想.     

Reactions of Lotus japonicus ecotypes and mutants to root parasitic plants

Witchweeds (Striga spp.) and broomrapes (Orobanche spp.) are obligate root parasitic plants on economically important field and horticultural crops. The parasites' seeds are induced to germinate by root-derived chemical signals. The radicular end is transformed into a haustorium which attaches, penetrates the host root and establishes connection with the vascular system of the host. Reactions of Lotus japonicus, a model legume for functional genomics, were studied for furthering the understanding of host-parasite interactions. Lotus japonicus was compatible with Orobanche aegyptiaca, but not with Orobanche minor, Striga hermonthica and Striga gesnerioides. Orobanche minor successfully penetrated Lotus japonicus roots, but failed to establish connections with the vascular system. Haustoria in Striga hermonthica attached to the roots, but penetration and subsequent growth of the endophyte in the cortex were restricted. Striga gesnerioides did not parasitize Lotus japonicus. Among seven mutants of Lotus japonicus (castor-5, har1-5, alb1-1, ccamk-3, nup85-3, nfr1-3 and nsp2-1) with altered characteristics in relation to rhizobial nodulation and mycorrhizal colonization, castor-5 and har1-5 were parasitized by Orobanche aegyptiaca with higher frequency than the wild type. In contrast, Orobanche aegyptiaca tubercle development was delayed on the mutants nup85-3, nfr1-3 and nsp2-1. These results suggest that nodulation, mycorrhizal colonization and infection by root parasitic plants in Lotus japonicus may be modulated by similar mechanisms and that Lotus japonicus is a potential model legume for studying plant-plant parasitism.     

Effects of climate change and horticultural use on the spread of naturalized alien garden plants in Europe

Climate warming is supposed to enlarge the area climatically suitable to the naturalization of alien garden plants in temperate regions. However, the effects of a changing climate on the spread of naturalized ornamentals have not been evaluated by spatially and temporarily explicit range modelling at larger scales so far. Here, we assess how climate change and the frequency of cultivation interactively determine the spread of 15 ornamental plants over the 21st century in Europe. We coupled species distribution modelling with simulations of demography and dispersal to predict range dynamics of these species in annual steps across a 250 × 250 m raster of the study area. Models were run under four scenarios of climate warming and six levels of cultivation intensity. Cultivation frequency was implemented as size of the area used for planting a species. Although the area climatically suitable to the 15 species increases, on average, the area predicted to be occupied by them in 2090 shrinks under two of the three climate change scenarios. This contradiction obviously arises from dispersal limitations that were pronounced although we assumed that cultivation is spatially adapting to the changing climate. Cultivation frequency had a much stronger effect on species spread than climate change, and this effect was non‐linear. The area occupied increased sharply from low to moderate levels of cultivation intensity, but levelled off afterwards. Our simulations suggest that climate warming will not necessarily foster the spread of alien garden plants in Europe over the next decades. However, climatically suitable areas do increase and hence an invasion debt is likely accumulating. Restricting cultivation of species can be effective in preventing species spread, irrespective of how the climate develops. However, for being successful, they depend on high levels of compliance to keep propagule pressure at a low level.     

Grassland root demography responses to multiple climate change drivers depend on root morphology

Aims

We examine how root system demography and morphology are affected by air warming and multiple, simultaneous climate change drivers.

Methods

Using minirhizotrons, we studied root growth, morphology, median longevity, risk of mortality and standing root pool in the upper soil horizon of a temperate grassland ecosystem for 3 years. Grassland monoliths were subjected to four climate treatments in a replicated additive design: control (C); elevated temperature (T); combined T and summer precipitation reduction (TD); combined TD and elevated atmospheric CO₂ (TDCO₂).

Results

Air warming (C vs T) and the combined climate change treatment (C vs TDCO₂) had a positive effect on root growth rate and standing root pool. However, root responses to climate treatment varied depending on diameter size class. For fine roots (≤ 0.1 mm), new root length and mortality increased under warming but decreased in response to elevated CO₂ (TD vs TDCO₂); for coarse roots (> 0.2 mm), length and mortality increased under both elevated CO₂ and combined climate change drivers.

Conclusions

Our data suggest that the standing roots pool in our grassland system may increase under future climatic conditions. Contrasted behaviour of fine and coarse roots may correspond to differential root activity of these extreme diameter classes in future climate.     

Genetic consequences of climate change for northern plants

Climate change will lead to loss of range for many species, and thus to loss of genetic diversity crucial for their long-term persistence. We analysed range-wide genetic diversity (amplified fragment length polymorphisms) in 9581 samples from 1200 populations of 27 northern plant species, to assess genetic consequences of range reduction and potential association with species traits. We used species distribution modelling (SDM, eight techniques, two global circulation models and two emission scenarios) to predict loss of range and genetic diversity by 2080. Loss of genetic diversity varied considerably among species, and this variation could be explained by dispersal adaptation (up to 57%) and by genetic differentiation among populations (F(ST); up to 61%). Herbs lacking adaptations for long-distance dispersal were estimated to lose genetic diversity at higher rate than dwarf shrubs adapted to long-distance dispersal. The expected range reduction in these 27 northern species was larger than reported for temperate plants, and all were predicted to lose genetic diversity according to at least one scenario. SDM combined with F(ST) estimates and/or with species trait information thus allows the prediction of species' vulnerability to climate change, aiding rational prioritization of conservation efforts.     

气候变化对森林演替的影响

森林演替是森林生态动力源驱动下森林再生的生态学过程,自20世纪初建立群落演替理论以来,演替研究成为生态学研究中的热点．客观准确地认识森林演替规律,研究森林演替动力学机理及其模型,是科学管理森林生态系统的需要;对于天然林保护工程与森林植被的恢复重建,具有重要的理论与实际意义．干扰是森林循环的驱动力,导致森林生态系统时空异质性,是更新格局和生态学过程的主要影响因素．它可改变资源的有效性,干扰导致的林隙是森林循环的起点．回顾了目前演替研究的几种方法,即马尔科夫模型、林窗模型(GAP)、陆地生物圈模型(BIOME)和非线性演替模式．介绍了气候变化对森林演替的影响;并在已有成果的基础上,提出了目前研究存在的问题及未来的发展方向．     

Extinction of water plants in the Hula Valley: Evidence for climate change

We describe two events of water plant extinction in the Hula Valley, northern Israel: the ancient, natural extinction of 3 out of 14 extinct species at Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov, which occurred some 800-700 k.yr., and an anthropogenic, near contemporary extinction of seven species in the artificial drainage of the Hula Lake in the 1950s. We conclude that the considerable fraction of water plants that disappeared from the Hula Valley in the Early-Middle Pleistocene was the result of habitat desiccation and not global warming. Thus, there is evidence that the hominins who lived in the Hula Valley inhabited a comparatively dry place. The disappearance of water plant species was partially the result of reduced seed dispersal by birds (ornitochory) as a result of the shrinkage of water bodies and their number along the Rift Valley. We suggest that the disappearance of a group of rare, local water plants can be used as an indicator of climate drying and impacts on the local vegetation.     

全球气候变化对陆地植物碳氮磷生态化学计量学特征的影响

全球气候变化背景下生物地球化学循环的响应规律和陆地植物适应对策已受到广泛关注.本文在分析气候变暖和降水变化对不同生态系统植物C∶N∶P的影响、CO₂浓度升高对不同光合途径物种元素的影响,以及氮沉降对土壤 植物元素影响的短期和长期效应等基础上,从植物生理特性和土壤有效营养元素变化等方面揭示了其可能存在的内在机理,以期为研究C、N、P化学元素在土壤 植物之间传递与调节机制、陆地生态系统结构和功能,以及生物地球化学元素循环对气候变化的响应提供理论依据.最后提出了该领域研究中存在的问题及对今后研究的展望.     

Hydrologic refugia,plants, and climate change

Climate, physical landscapes, and biota interact to generate heterogeneous hydrologic conditions in space and over time, which are reflected in spatial patterns of species distributions. As these species distributions respond to rapid climate change, microrefugia may support local species persistence in the face of deteriorating climatic suitability. Recent focus on temperature as a determinant of microrefugia insufficiently accounts for the importance of hydrologic processes and changing water availability with changing climate. Where water scarcity is a major limitation now or under future climates, hydrologic microrefugia are likely to prove essential for species persistence, particularly for sessile species and plants. Zones of high relative water availability – mesic microenvironments – are generated by a wide array of hydrologic processes, and may be loosely coupled to climatic processes and therefore buffered from climate change. Here, we review the mechanisms that generate mesic microenvironments and their likely robustness in the face of climate change. We argue that mesic microenvironments will act as species‐specific refugia only if the nature and space/time variability in water availability are compatible with the ecological requirements of a target species. We illustrate this argument with case studies drawn from California oak woodland ecosystems. We posit that identification of hydrologic refugia could form a cornerstone of climate‐cognizant conservation strategies, but that this would require improved understanding of climate change effects on key hydrologic processes, including frequently cryptic processes such as groundwater flow.     

Protecting endemic seed plants on the Tibetan Plateau under future climate change: migration matters

AimsClimate change in the near future may become a major threat to high-altitude endemics by greatly altering their distribution. Our aims are to (i) assess the potential impacts of future climate change on the diversity and distribution of seed plants endemic to the Tibetan Plateau and (ii) evaluate the conservation effectiveness of the current National Nature Reserves (NNRs) in protecting the endemic plants in the face of climate change.     

人工绿洲对夏季气候变化趋势的影响

在绿洲的气候环境效应方面 ,此前的研究主要是基于个别地点的短期 (几天或几个月 )观测资料进行对比 ,分析绿洲与荒漠之间的要素差异和能量交换机制。通过细致筛选那些观测环境变化小、人口密度低、没有进行大规模水土开发地区的气象站 ,建立了反映背景变化的气候序列 ,同时选择不同地区的气象站建立了绿洲气候序列 ,分析背景与绿洲在气温、降水、水汽压、蒸发、风速等 9个气候因子近 5 0 a来气候趋势变化率的差异 ,研究绿洲发展对长年代气候变化的综合影响。结果表明 ,绿洲发展产生的气候环境效应在影响局部地区长期气候变化趋势方面是十分明显的。在夏季 ,绿洲平均气温的增温变化趋势要小于背景变化趋势 ,有些绿洲地区如吐 -善 -托盆地和叶尔羌河流域绿洲气温变化趋势还略呈下降趋势。绿洲地区对最高气温的变化趋势有着明显的抑制作用。其中 ,叶尔羌河流域绿洲和塔里木河中游地区绿洲最高气温变化趋势略呈下降趋势。绿洲地区对最低气温上升的变化趋势有一定的加强影响 ,绿洲效应使日较差正在变的越来越小。夏季绿洲对空中水汽压的增加十分明显 ,使蒸发潜力变得越来越弱 ,对降水有一定程度的增加作用。绿洲效应最为显著的一个方面是风速的变化 ,绿洲使平均风速和大风日数大幅度减少     

施肥对日本落叶松不同根序细根养分浓度的影响

以辽宁东部山区16年生日本落叶松人工林为对象,探讨施肥对落叶松1～5级不同根序等级细根养分浓度的变化.结果表明：不同根序等级细根全碳浓度差异不显著,施肥对各级根序全碳浓度没有显著影响;在前5级根序中,1级根非结构性碳水化合物（TNC）浓度最低,N和P浓度最高;而5级根TNC浓度最高,N和P浓度最低.TNC浓度随着根序增加而升高,N和P浓度则相应下降.施肥仅对1级根组织中N和P浓度有显著影响;不同根序根组织中C/N/P具有明显差异,1级根平均C/N/P为423∶16∶1,5级根为726∶16∶1,随着根序增加,C在3种元素中的比例显著增加,而N的比例变化不大.施N肥并没有改变C的比例;但施P肥或施N+P肥均降低了前3级根（0～10 cm）或前2级根（10～20 cm）C和N在3种元素中的比例.