改进Biome-BGC模型模拟哈佛森林地区水、碳通量

Biome-BGC模型通过耦合植被、土壤与大气间的水分与CO2交换过程,实现植被生产力的模拟,但土壤水平衡模块的不够完善,导致在长时间无降水情况下植被生产力模拟存在较大误差.针对这一问题,本文对Biome-BGC模型中土壤水分胁迫气孔导度方程、蒸散计算公式及土壤水分流失过程等3方面进行了改进和调整,利用改进的Biome-BGC模型模拟美国哈佛森林地区蒸散、植被生产力,并与地面通量观测值进行了比较.结果表明,改进后模拟精度有明显的提高,蒸散、植被生态系统生产力(NEE)与观测值间的决定系数分别由0.483和0.658提高到0.617和O.813,蒸散逐年均方根误差平均下降了48.7％,NEE逐年误差平方和平均下降了39.8％.改进后的模型模拟结果更接近观测值.     

Evaluation of ecosystem dynamics, plant geography and terrestrial carbon cycling in the LPJ dynamic global vegetation model

The Lund–Potsdam–Jena Dynamic Global Vegetation Model (LPJ) combines process‐based, large‐scale representations of terrestrial vegetation dynamics and land‐atmosphere carbon and water exchanges in a modular framework. Features include feedback through canopy conductance between photosynthesis and transpiration and interactive coupling between these ‘fast’ processes and other ecosystem processes including resource competition, tissue turnover, population dynamics, soil organic matter and litter dynamics and fire disturbance. Ten plants functional types (PFTs) are differentiated by physiological, morphological, phenological, bioclimatic and fire‐response attributes. Resource competition and differential responses to fire between PFTs influence their relative fractional cover from year to year. Photosynthesis, evapotranspiration and soil water dynamics are modelled on a daily time step, while vegetation structure and PFT population densities are updated annually. Simulations have been made over the industrial period both for specific sites where field measurements were available for model evaluation, and globally on a 0.5°° × 0.5°° grid. Modelled vegetation patterns are consistent with observations, including remotely sensed vegetation structure and phenology. Seasonal cycles of net ecosystem exchange and soil moisture compare well with local measurements. Global carbon exchange fields used as input to an atmospheric tracer transport model (TM2) provided a good fit to observed seasonal cycles of CO₂ concentration at all latitudes. Simulated inter‐annual variability of the global terrestrial carbon balance is in phase with and comparable in amplitude to observed variability in the growth rate of atmospheric CO₂. Global terrestrial carbon and water cycle parameters (pool sizes and fluxes) lie within their accepted ranges. The model is being used to study past, present and future terrestrial ecosystem dynamics, biochemical and biophysical interactions between ecosystems and the atmosphere, and as a component of coupled Earth system models.     

A test of the optimality approach to modelling canopy properties and CO2 uptake by natural vegetation

Photosynthesis provides plants with their main building material, carbohydrates, and with the energy necessary to thrive and prosper in their environment. We expect, therefore, that natural vegetation would evolve optimally to maximize its net carbon profit (NCP), the difference between carbon acquired by photosynthesis and carbon spent on maintenance of the organs involved in its uptake. We modelled N(CP) for an optimal vegetation for a site in the wet-dry tropics of north Australia based on this hypothesis and on an ecophysiological gas exchange and photosynthesis model, and compared the modelled CO2 fluxes and canopy properties with observations from the site. The comparison gives insights into theoretical and real controls on gas exchange and canopy structure, and supports the optimality approach for the modelling of gas exchange of natural vegetation. The main advantage of the optimality approach we adopt is that no assumptions about the particular vegetation of a site are required, making it a very powerful tool for predicting vegetation response to long-term climate or land use change.     

Plant Functional Type Effects on Trace Gas Fluxes in the Shortgrass Steppe

Plant community structure is expected to regulate the microbial processes of nitrification and denitrification by controlling the availability of inorganic N substrates. Thus it could also be a factor in the concomitant release of NO and N2O from soils as a result of these processes. C3 and C4 plants differ in several attributes related to the cycling of nitrogen and were hypothesized to yield differences in trace gas exchange between soil and atmosphere. In this study we estimated fluxes of NO, N2O and CH4 from soils of shortgrass steppe communities dominated by either C3 plants, C4 plants or mixtures of the two types. We collected gas samples weekly from two sites, a sandy clay loam and a clay, throughout the growing seasons of 1995 and 1996. Plant functional type effects on gas fluxes at the clay site were not apparent, however we found several differences among plant communities on the sandy clay loam. CH4 uptake from atmosphere to soil was significantly greater on C4 plots than C3 plots in both years. NO fluxes were significantly greater from C4 plots than from C3 plots in 1995. NO fluxes from C3 and mixed plots were not significantly different between 1995 and 1996, however fluxes from C4 plots were significantly greater in 1995 compared to 1996. Results indicate that under certain environmental conditions, particularly when factors such as moisture and temperature are not limiting, plant community composition can play an important role in regulating trace gas exchange.     

植被对近地面层水热交换影响的参数化模型

应用植被对地表面与大气之间水热交换影响的参数化模型,研究了不同植被类型的覆盖度、土壤湿度下垫面的土壤温度、叶温、近地面层气温及地表面与大气之间热量和水分交换,并一相应的观测资料进行了比较,结果表明,模拟不同植被的不同植被的温湿状况、辐射特征和能量平衡关系是合理的。因此,该参数化模型可于中尺度气象模型、气候模拟和环境生态学的研究。     

Remote sensing of forest gas exchange: Considerations derived from a tomographic perspective

The global exchange of gas (CO₂, H₂O) and energy (sensible and latent heat) between forest ecosystems and the atmosphere is often assessed using remote sensing (RS) products. Although these products are essential in quantifying the spatial variability of forest–atmosphere exchanges, large uncertainties remain from a measurement bias towards top of canopy fluxes since optical RS data are not sensitive for the vertically integrated forest canopy. We hypothesize that a tomographic perspective opens new pathways to advance upscaling gas exchange processes from leaf to forest stands and larger scales. We suggest a 3D modelling environment comprising principles of ecohydrology and radiative transfer modelling with measurements of micrometeorological variables, leaf optical properties and forest structure, and assess 3D fields of net CO₂ assimilation (A_n) and transpiration (T) in a Swiss temperate forest canopy. 3D simulations were used to quantify uncertainties in gas exchange estimates inherent to RS approaches and model assumptions (i.e. a big‐leaf approximation in modelling approaches). Our results reveal substantial 3D heterogeneity of forest gas exchange with top of canopy A_n and T being reduced by up to 98% at the bottom of the canopy. We show that a simplified use of RS causes uncertainties in estimated vertical gas exchange of up to 300% and that the spatial variation of gas exchange in the footprint of flux towers can exceed diurnal dynamics. We also demonstrate that big‐leaf assumptions can cause uncertainties up to a factor of 10 for estimates of A_n and T. Concluding, we acknowledge the large potential of 3D assessments of gas exchange to unravelling the role of vertical variability and canopy structure in regulating forest–atmosphere gas and energy exchange. Such information allows to systematically link canopy with global scale controls on forest functioning and eventually enables advanced understanding of forest responses to environmental change.     

中国东部南北样带主要植被类型物候期的变化

植被物候期的变化是全球变化研究的热点问题, 因为物候过程是反映植被对气候变化响应的最直接和最敏感的生态学过程之一, 大尺度植被物候学过程主要以植被的季节动态体现其对气候变化的长期适应过程。基于NOAA/AVHRR从1982年至2006年的双周归一化植被指数NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index)数据, 依托中国东部南北样带, 对主要植被类型的物候过程进行模拟, 并计算了主要物候现象(包括返青起始期、休眠起始期和生长季长度)的发生时间和演变趋势。结果表明: 返青起始期显著提前的植被有温带针叶林(TCF, 0.56 d·a^-1)、温带草丛(TG, 0.66 d·a^-1)、亚热带热带针叶林(STCF, 0.46 d·a^-1)、亚热带落叶阔叶林(SDBF, 0.58 d·a^-1)和亚热带热带草丛(STG, 0.89 d·a^-1); 休眠起始期显著推迟的植被有寒温带温带针叶林(TCTCF, 0.32 d·a^-1)、SDBF (0.80 d·a^-1)和温带落叶阔叶林(TDBF, 0.18 d·a^-1); 此外, 大部分植被类型的生长季长度都有所延长, 但延长的方式不同: TCF (0.77 d·a^-1)是由于返青起始期显著提前造成的; TCTCF (0.38 d·a^-1)和TDBF (0.36 d·a^-1)是由于休眠起始期显著推迟造成的; TG (0.76 d·a^-1)、STCF (0.83 d·a^-1)、SDBF (1.40 d·a^-1)和STG (1.30 d·a^-1)等是由于返青起始期提前和休眠起始期推迟共同造成的。对温度和降水的变化进行分析发现, 温度对南北样带上植被物候的影响较大, 而降水对物候的影响相对较小, 不同植被类型对温度的响应各异。在南北样带上存在的热量梯度, 使得整条样带上植被的物候现象也表现出时间梯度, 从返青起始期发生的时间上比较, 从北向南逐渐推迟, 即寒温带植被>温带植被>亚热带植被; 休眠起始期和生长季长度则正好相反, 亚热带植被>温带植被>寒温带植被。     

大尺度森林碳循环过程模拟模型综述

森林生态系统碳循环是全球陆地生态系统碳循环的重要组成部分,而碳循环模型已经成为研究森林碳循环的必要手段。森林碳循环模型可以分为统计模型和过程模型,其中过程模型以其完整的理论框架、严谨的结构分析和清晰的过程机理,逐渐占据了主导地位。从地球化学过程模型、陆面物理过程模型和生物过程模型等3个方面综述区域尺度到全球尺度(本文称为大尺度)森林碳循环过程模型研究进展,论述了各类模型的主要特征、优缺点以及应用现状,探讨了森林碳循环模拟研究中存在的问题,并讨论了森林碳循环过程模型的主流研究方向。可为不同空间尺度下森林生态系统碳循环模拟模型的选择提供参考,以及为森林碳循环研究提供借鉴。     

Coupling microscale vegetation–soil water and macroscale vegetation–precipitation feedbacks in semiarid ecosystems

At macroscale, land–atmosphere exchange of energy and water in semiarid zones such as the Sahel constitutes a strong positive feedback between vegetation density and precipitation. At microscale, however, additional positive feedbacks between hydrology and vegetation such as increase of infiltration due to increase of vegetation, have been reported and have a large impact on vegetation distribution and spatial pattern formation. If both macroscale and microscale positive feedbacks are present in the same region, it is reasonable to assume that these feedback mechanisms are connected. In this study, we develop and analyse a soil‐vegetation‐atmosphere model coupling large‐scale evapotranspiration–precipitation feedback with a model of microscale vegetation–hydrology feedback to study the integration of these nonlinearities at disparate scales. From our results, two important conclusions can be drawn: (1) it is important to account for spatially explicit vegetation dynamics at the microscale in climate models (the strength of the precipitation feedback increased up to 35% by accounting for these microscale dynamics); (2) studies on resilience of ecosystems to climate change should always be cast within a framework of possible large‐scale atmospheric feedback mechanism (substantial changes in vegetation resilience resulted from incorporating macroscale precipitation feedback). Analysis of full‐coupled modelling shows that both type of feedbacks markedly influence each other and that they should both be accounted for in climate change models.     

Convective exchange between the nose and the atmosphere

It is generally accepted that there is little rebreathing of gas exhaled through the nose. A detailed physical model system has been used to quantify and identify the mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon. By the use of a cast of the upper respiratory tract and oscillating flows with a Reynolds number of 500 and nondimensional frequency of 1.6, corresponding to quiet tidal breathing through the nose, dye dilution measurements indicated an efficiency of tidal exchange of 0.95. Flow visualization studies performed to trace the expiratory flow, as well as the streamlines during steady inspiratory flow, support the hypothesis that the high efficiency of exchange is due to radical differences in the velocity fields between inspiratory and expiratory phases of this oscillatory flow. These findings confirm that convective gas exchange between the nose and the atmosphere is highly efficient; however, the underlying mechanism responsible for this exchange also maximizes the exposure of the respiratory system to aerosols contained in the ambient atmosphere.     

Plant respiration and photosynthesis in global‐scale models: incorporating acclimation to temperature and CO2

To realistically simulate climate feedbacks from the land surface to the atmosphere, models must replicate the responses of plants to environmental changes. Several processes, operating at various scales, cause the responses of photosynthesis and plant respiration to temperature and CO₂ to change over time of exposure to new or changing environmental conditions. Here, we review the latest empirical evidence that short‐term responses of plant carbon exchange rates to temperature and CO₂ are modified by plant photosynthetic and respiratory acclimation as well as biogeochemical feedbacks. We assess the frequency with which these responses have been incorporated into vegetation models, and highlight recently designed algorithms that can facilitate their incorporation. Few models currently include representations of the long‐term plant responses that have been recorded by empirical studies, likely because these responses are still poorly understood at scales relevant for models. Studies show that, at a regional scale, simulated carbon flux between the atmosphere and vegetation can dramatically differ between versions of models that do and do not include acclimation. However, the realism of these results is difficult to evaluate, as algorithm development is still in an early stage, and a limited number of data are available. We provide a series of recommendations that suggest how a combination of empirical and modeling studies can produce mechanistic algorithms that will realistically simulate longer term responses within global‐scale models.     

Kinetic measurements of gas exchange in the intact pulmonary microcirculation.

The kinetics of gas exchange are monitored in an isolated perfused lung preparation contained within a plethysmograph. The lungs are perfused with buffer, and there is no gas exchange until a 2.0-ml bolus of reactant is injected into the perfusion system. Subsequent gas exchange produces a pressure transient that is related to the corresponding volume of exchanged gas. The observed rate of volume change is the result of two separate processes: 1) the rate of gas exchange during transit through the capillary bed and 2) the distribution of vascular transit times between the point of injection and the capillary bed. The latter is assessed by a control injection containing a dissolved inert gas that is liberated in the alveoli as the bolus enters the capillary bed. Analysis of the experimental curves permits the separation of these two processes. A model of exchange kinetics indicates that this method has the capability of measuring kinetic events occurring during gas exchange in the microcirculation under physiological conditions.     

Signaling Networks Regulating Development of the Lower Respiratory Tract

The lungs serve the primary function of air-blood gas exchange in all mammals and in terrestrial vertebrates. Efficient gas exchange requires a large surface area that provides intimate contact between the atmosphere and the circulatory system. To achieve this, the lung contains a branched conducting system (the bronchial tree) and specialized air-blood gas exchange units (the alveoli). The conducting system brings air from the external environment to the alveoli and functions to protect the lung from debris that could obstruct airways, from entry of pathogens, and from excessive loss of fluids. The distal lung enables efficient exchange of gas between the alveoli and the conducting system and between the alveoli and the circulatory system. In this article, we highlight developmental and physiological mechanisms that specify, pattern, and regulate morphogenesis of this complex and essential organ. Recent advances have begun to define molecular mechanisms that control many of the important processes required for lung organogenesis; however, many questions remain. A deeper understanding of these molecular mechanisms will aid in the diagnosis and treatment of congenital lung disease and in the development of strategies to enhance the reparative response of the lung to injury and eventually permit regeneration of functional lung tissue.     

Impact of gas transport through rice cultivars on methane emission from rice paddy fields

Two Italian rice (Oryza sativa var. japonica) cultivars, Lido and Roma, were tested in the field for methane production, oxidation and emission. In two consecutive years, fields planted with the rice cultivar Lido showed methane emissions 24–31% lower than fields planted with the cultivar Roma. This difference was observed irrespective of fertilizer treatment. In contrast to methane emissions, differences in methane production or oxidation were not observed between fields planted with the two cultivars. Plant-mediated transport of methane from the sediment to the atmosphere was the dominating pathway of methane emission. During the entire vegetation period, the contribution of this pathway to total methane emission amounted to c. 90%, whereas the contribution of gas bubble release and of diffusion through the water column to total methane emission was of minor significance. Results obtained from transport studies of tracer gas through the aerenchyma system of rice plants demonstrated that the root–shoot transition zone is the main site of resistance to plant-mediated gas exchange between the soil and the atmosphere. The cultivar Lido, showing relatively low methane emissions in the field, had a significantly lower gas transport capacity through the aerenchyma system than the cultivar Roma. Thus, the observed differences in methane emissions in the field between the cultivars Lido and Roma can be explained by different gas transport capacities. Apparently, these differences in gas transport capacities are a consequence of differences in morphology of the aerenchyma systems, especially in the root–shoot transition zone. It is, therefore, concluded that identification and use of high-yielding rice cultivars which have a low gas transport capacity represent an economically feasible, environmentally sound and promising approach to mitigating methane emissons from rice paddy fields.     

塔里木盆地陆面水文模式研究

研究土壤、植被、大气统一体内水分循环和能量交换过程的复杂特性,形成一人比较反映真实情况,定量模拟这些交换过程模式的重要性已引起大家的注意,早在１９６９年Ｐｈｉｌｌｐ就强调用这种统一体现观点去陆地与大之间的水热交换,生态工作者过去的许多工作都已说明发生在陆气交界面上的水热交换过程同覆盖陆地的植被状况有密切的关系,不同陆面生物圈结构物理及植物生理性质将对这种交换过程的起着决定性的作用,从而对气候与环境     

西北干旱区河西走廊荒漠绿洲土地覆盖类型与蒸散的关系研究——基于Landsat 8和ZY3数据融合

蒸散是地表水热平衡的重要分量,也是陆地生态过程与水文过程之间的重要纽带,尤其在干旱区地-气相互作用、碳循环、水循环等过程所包含的物质与能量交换中占有极其重要的地位。基于Landsat 8遥感影像和资源三号影像(ZY3)的高分辨率植被信息,利用SEBS模型对西北干旱区河西走廊中段临泽绿洲北部区域地表蒸散量进行了估算,并用绿洲内部和绿洲-荒漠过渡带两个通量塔涡动相关数据对模型进行评估,分析了不同土地覆盖类型对蒸散量空间分布的影响。结果表明:(1)SEBS模型模拟值与实测日蒸散值之间拟合效果较好,且在均一地表时(绿洲农田区)估算精度更高(R~2=0.96,P0.001),RMSE、MAE分别为0.84 mm/d、0.56 mm/d;(2)从季节变化来看蒸散量与作物生长密切相关,夏季灌溉和降雨使得研究区水分充足,植被覆盖度高,蒸散量相应增加,在绿洲地区可达5.95 mm/d,而冬季最小仅为0.52 mm/d;(3)从蒸散量的空间变化来看,水体蒸散值最大,其余依次为农田、防护林、裸地和灌木丛,说明除水体外,随着植被覆盖的增大,蒸散量也逐渐增加。通过ZY3影像的高分辨率植被信息与Landsat 8影像热红外数据融合,提高了SEBS模型对该区域蒸散量的模拟效果,增进了我们对绿洲下垫面与大气间水热交换规律、水文过程、生态-水文相互作用的深入理解。     

On the stability of the high-latitude climate-vegetation system in a coupled atmosphere-biosphere model

In order to investigate the hypothesis that the Earth's climate and vegetation patterns may have more than one basic state, we use the fully coupled GENESIS-IBIS model. GENESIS is an atmospheric general circulation model. IBIS is a dynamic global vegetation model that integrates biophysical, physiological, and ecological processes. GENESIS and IBIS are coupled by way of a common land surface interface to allow for the full and transient interaction between changes in the vegetation structure and changes in the general circulation of the atmosphere. We examine two modern climate simulations of the coupled model initialized with two different initial conditions. In one case, we initialize the model vegetation cover with the modern observed distribution of vegetation. In the other case, we initialize the vegetation cover with evergreen boreal forests extending to the Arctic coast, replacing high-latitude tundra. We interpret the coupled model's behaviour using a conceptual model for multistability and demonstrate that in both simulations the climate-vegetation system converges to the same equilibrium state. In the present climate, feedbacks between land, ocean, sea ice, and the atmosphere do not result in the warming required to support an expanded boreal forest.     

用GSVAT模型研究地表/大气界面传输

用麦男水分和能量平衡资料验证了包括地下水的土壤－植被－大气水热传输模型（ＧＳＶＡＴ）,结果显示,模型能较好地模拟地表／大气水热传输特征,以及土壤水分的动态变化。通过敏感性分析,探讨叶／气界面,土壤／空气界面的节水调控效应,结果发现这两个界面对水汽传输的交互影响显著,若同时增加它们的水汽传输阻力,节水效果尤其明显。     

Net primary and ecosystem production and carbon stocks of terrestrial ecosystems and their responses to climate change

Evaluating the role of terrestrial ecosystems in the global carbon cycle requires a detailed understanding of carbon exchange between vegetation, soil, and the atmosphere. Global climatic change may modify the net carbon balance of terrestrial ecosystems, causing feedbacks on atmospheric CO₂ and climate. We describe a model for investigating terrestrial carbon exchange and its response to climatic variation based on the processes of plant photosynthesis, carbon allocation, litter production, and soil organic carbon decomposition. The model is used to produce geographical patterns of net primary production (NPP), carbon stocks in vegetation and soils, and the seasonal variations in net ecosystem production (NEP) under both contemporary and future climates. For contemporary climate, the estimated global NPP is 57.0 Gt C y^–1, carbon stocks in vegetation and soils are 640 Gt C and 1358 Gt C, respectively, and NEP varies from –0.5 Gt C in October to 1.6 Gt C in July. For a doubled atmospheric CO₂ concentration and the corresponding climate, we predict that global NPP will rise to 69.6 Gt C y^–1, carbon stocks in vegetation and soils will increase by, respectively, 133 Gt C and 160 Gt C, and the seasonal amplitude of NEP will increase by 76%. A doubling of atmospheric CO₂ without climate change may enhance NPP by 25% and result in a substantial increase in carbon stocks in vegetation and soils. Climate change without CO₂ elevation will reduce the global NPP and soil carbon stocks, but leads to an increase in vegetation carbon because of a forest extension and NPP enhancement in the north. By combining the effects of CO₂ doubling, climate change, and the consequent redistribution of vegetation, we predict a strong enhancement in NPP and carbon stocks of terrestrial ecosystems. This study simulates the possible variation in the carbon exchange at equilibrium state. We anticipate to investigate the dynamic responses in the carbon exchange to atmospheric CO₂ elevation and climate change in the past and future.