The adequacy of Victoria's protected areas for conserving its forest‐dependent fauna

Networks of protected areas are a key component of efforts to conserve biodiversity. However, there are concerns about an uncritical focus on the percentage area of reserves without an assessment of how well formal reserves are actually protecting biodiversity. In response, we completed a spatial analysis of the formal reserve system in the Australian state of Victoria. We quantified how well the reserve system captured a crude surrogate for vegetation communities (viz: Ecological Vegetation Classes) as well as distribution models for an array of threatened forest‐dependent species. We found evidence of a high degree of overlap between areas subject to intensive forestry (clearcutting) operations and the modelled distribution of a suite of forest‐dependent species. A key outcome of our study was that areas around sites subject to past logging as well as new areas proposed for logging under the Timber Release Plan in Victoria had significantly higher values for threatened forest‐dependent species (as determined by habitat distribution models) than areas that had not been logged. We found significant differences in the spatial characteristics of the dedicated reserve systems and informal protected area networks, with the latter featuring much of its area close to a tenure boundary where logging occurs. Our empirical analyses demonstrating the impacts of ongoing logging operations on areas with high environmental suitability for threatened species have important implications. In particular, the current reserve system is inadequate for a suite of forest‐dependent taxa, including critically endangered Leadbeater's Possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) and the vulnerable Greater Glider (Petauroides volans). This suggests a high degree of conflict between areas of high value for conservation and areas targeted for wood production.     

Temperature‐driven coral decline: the role of marine protected areas

Warming ocean temperatures are considered to be an important cause of the degradation of the world's coral reefs. Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been proposed as one tool to increase coral reef ecosystem resistance and resilience (i.e. recovery) to the negative effects of climate change, yet few studies have evaluated their efficacy in achieving these goals. We used a high resolution 4 km global temperature anomaly database from 1985–2005 and 8040 live coral cover surveys on protected and unprotected reefs to determine whether or not MPAs have been effective in mitigating temperature‐driven coral loss. Generally, protection in MPAs did not reduce the effect of warm temperature anomalies on coral cover declines. Shortcomings in MPA design, including size and placement, may have contributed to the lack of an MPA effect. Empirical studies suggest that corals that have been previously exposed to moderate levels of thermal stress have greater adaptive capacity and resistance to future thermal stress events. Existing MPAs protect relatively fewer reefs with moderate anomaly frequencies, potentially reducing their effectiveness. However, our results also suggest that the benefits from MPAs may not be great enough to offset the magnitude of losses from acute thermal stress events. Although MPAs are important conservation tools, their limitations in mitigating coral loss from acute thermal stress events suggest that they need to be complemented with policies aimed at reducing the activities responsible for climate change.     

Dispersal patterns of coastal fish: implications for designing networks of marine protected areas

Information about dispersal scales of fish at various life history stages is critical for successful design of networks of marine protected areas, but is lacking for most species and regions. Otolith chemistry provides an opportunity to investigate dispersal patterns at a number of life history stages. Our aim was to assess patterns of larval and post-settlement (i.e. between settlement and recruitment) dispersal at two different spatial scales in a Mediterranean coastal fish (i.e. white sea bream, Diplodus sargus sargus) using otolith chemistry. At a large spatial scale (～200 km) we investigated natal origin of fish and at a smaller scale (～30 km) we assessed "site fidelity" (i.e. post-settlement dispersal until recruitment). Larvae dispersed from three spawning areas, and a single spawning area supplied post-settlers (proxy of larval supply) to sites spread from 100 to 200 km of coastline. Post-settlement dispersal occurred within the scale examined of ～30 km, although about a third of post-settlers were recruits in the same sites where they settled. Connectivity was recorded both from a MPA to unprotected areas and vice versa. The approach adopted in the present study provides some of the first quantitative evidence of dispersal at both larval and post-settlement stages of a key species in Mediterranean rocky reefs. Similar data taken from a number of species are needed to effectively design both single marine protected areas and networks of marine protected areas.     

Advances in marine conservation: the role of marine protected areas

The world's oceans are now attracting the serious attention of conservationists. Paradoxically, as the value of marine biological diversity is recognized, the ecosystems that harbor this diversity are fast becoming degraded. New thinking about how to conserve coastal areas has resulted in protected-area models that incorporate principles of landscape ecology, adaptive and ecosystem management, and zoning in protected-area plans.     

Assessment of management practices regarding genetic biodiversity in Baltic Sea marine protected areas

The aim of this study is to examine, and tentatively explain, how genetic biodiversity is handled in the management of Baltic Sea Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Genetic biodiversity is critical for species’ adaptation to changing environmental conditions and is protected by international agreements. Nevertheless, recent research indicates that genetic biodiversity is neglected in marine environments and in the management of MPAs. This study focuses on Sweden and Finland, which together govern a substantial part of Baltic Sea MPAs, and builds on in-depth interviews with regional conservation managers that are responsible for establishing and managing these areas. The empirical findings confirm that genetic biodiversity is absent, or plays a minor role, in contemporary MPA management. The findings also provide several possible explanations to this situation: unclear understandings of formal policy, lack of resources, deficient knowledge base, and the managers’ own policy beliefs. Policy makers and high-level managers need to consider these aspects in their efforts to protect biodiversity.     

Effects of microhabitat availability on estimates of density of a reef fish: implications for assessments of marine protected areas

Many estimates of ‘marine protected area (MPA) effects’ may be confounded by environmental heterogeneity between MPA and ‘Control’ sites. However, the magnitude and extent of such confounding is generally unknown. Here, the effects of microhabitat availability on estimates of MPA performance were explicitly explored. Abundance of a reef fish species, Ctenochaetus striatus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825), available microhabitat, and, microhabitat preference for C. striatus within six ‘Ra’ui’ (traditionally managed MPAs) and six paired ‘Control’ sites on the island of Rarotonga, Cook Islands, were estimated. Response ratios accounting for available microhabitat qualitatively modified inferences of Ra’ui effectiveness for two of the six Ra’ui when contrasted with response ratios not accounting for available microhabitat. However, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) indicated that available microhabitat accounted for significant variation in C. striatus densities between Ra’ui and Control, rather than protection. Our results suggest that adjusting for microhabitat availability may significantly alter our perception of the effects of Ra’ui on C. striatus. Our framework, in concert with our ANCOVA models, provides a stronger assessment of MPA effects. Further, we conclude that metrics of environmental heterogeneity should be incorporated into future assessments of MPA effectiveness, with our work describing one potential framework to accomplish this.     

Assessing the effectiveness of protected areas: paradoxes call for pluralism in evaluating conservation performance

Aim  To highlight and examine apparent paradoxes in assessing the effectiveness of different forms of land-use for biodiversity conservation.
Location  Tanzania.
Methods  We compare and contrast the findings of two recent and seemingly conflicting studies on the effectiveness of conservation protection strategies in Tanzania. We evaluate these studies in the context of a wider body of evidence relating to the problem of determining protected area performance.
Results  We highlight the importance of landscape-scale management approaches for biodiversity conservation; establishing clear management and monitoring objectives in advance; the interrelation between the choice of target species and the appropriate spatial scale over which to measure their fate; and differences between snapshot and longitudinal scales in assessing the effectiveness of conservation strategies.
Main conclusions  Protected area assessments should not promote an isolated focus on particular conservation targets or methods of monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of conservation strategies. Instead we argue for a more pluralistic approach to evaluating conservation performance that can help to reveal where potential synergies in tackling different objectives exist, and clarifying the trade-offs when they do not.     

Parasites in marine protected areas: success and specificity of monogeneans

The effect of a marine protected area on the Lamellodiscus spp. monogenean community was tested by comparing the communities of parasites of Diplodus sargus inside and outside of the area. A total of 104 D. sargus were dissected harbouring 1280 monogeneans from the genus Lamellodiscus and belonging to 11 species. No modification in the global parasite community linked with the protection of the host populations was revealed. The most abundant and less specific parasite species, Lamellodiscus elegans , however, increased its abundance in the protected area. A significant relationship was found between parasite host range and the percentage of infected hosts. A significant relationship also occurred between epidemiological and genetic distances for the parasite species found. The results are discussed in term of parasite success and specificity and the importance of taking into account parasitism in the biological conservation of hosts.     

Key drivers of effectiveness in small marine protected areas

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are a key management tool for the conservation of biodiversity and restoration of marine communities. While large, well-designed and enforced MPAs have been found to be effective, results from small MPAs vary. The Hawkesbury Shelf, a coastal bioregion in New South Wales, Australia, has ten small, near-shore MPAs known as Aquatic Reserves with a variety of protection levels from full no-take to partial protection. This study assessed the effectiveness of these MPAs and analysed how MPA age, size, protection level, wave exposure, habitat complexity, and large canopy-forming algal cover affected fish, invertebrate and benthic communities. We found aspect, protection level, complexity and algal canopy to be important predictors of communities in these MPAs. Most MPAs, however, were not effective in meeting their goals. Only full no-take protection (three out of ten MPAs) had a significant impact on fish assemblages. One no-take MPA—Cabbage Tree Bay—which is naturally sheltered from wave action and benefits from an active local community providing informal enforcement, accounted for most of the increased richness of large fish and increased biomass of targeted fish species. Our findings suggest that small MPAs can enhance biodiversity and biomass on a local scale but only if they have full no-take protection, are in sheltered locations with complex habitat, and have positive community involvement to engender support and stewardship. These results provide a baseline for robust assessment of the effectiveness of small MPAs and inform future management decisions and small MPA design in other locations.     

Multidisciplinary rapid assessment of coastal areas as a tool for the design and management of marine protected areas

A method is described for rapid multidisciplinary environmental assessment of coastal areas within the conceptual framework of comprehensive management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). The aim is to provide tools for the selection, design and management of coastal MPAs when time, budget or potential human pressures, either alone or in combination, create an urgent need for prioritisation. Maximising results and minimising cost and time is the goal, using a methodology that re evaluates existing information on the area, allows use of physical, environmental and socio-economic indicators, and finally integrates information in a Geographic Information System capable of generating outputs in the form of thematic maps to support managers.The final products obtained inform planners and managers about the study areas, across multiple aspects that all need to be considered in integrated coastal management. Although originally proposed for widespread use in the Mediterranean, this methodology can be flexibly adapted, with minor modifications in the selection of indicators, for its use in other regions. The results show its potential for merging and synthesising information not only as a tool in Rapid Assessment Programs but also as a tool for facing management of wide coastal areas as social-ecological ecosystems.     

海洋保护区管理与保护成效评估的方法与进展

全球物种多样性的持续下降使得生物多样性保护面临巨大挑战, 海洋生物多样性的保护任务尤其艰巨。海洋保护区是保护生物多样性的有效方式之一, 如何对其成效进行评估是当前研究热点。然而, 目前针对海洋保护区的评估体系较少, 而且评估指标多侧重于管理成效。近年来随着全球生物多样性监测网络和数据库的建立, 以及多种新技术(如遥感、声呐系统、卫星追踪、基因组学等)在海洋生物多样性监测中的应用, 使得从生态系统到基因水平的多层次连续监测成为可能。基于此, 建议未来我国海洋保护区成效评估应在充分利用新技术方法的基础上, 加强长期科学监测, 建立并完善生物多样性监测数据库和信息共享机制, 发展跨学科的综合保护成效评估体系, 加强基于生物多样性监测的保护成效评估。     

Usefulness of marine protected areas as tools for preserving the highly endangered limpet,Patella ferruginea,in the Mediterranean Sea

Patella ferruginea is the most endangered endemic marine invertebrate of western Mediterranean rocky shores. From 2012 to 2015, we performed a census and an ecological study for this gastropod mollusc in the Zembra Archipelago National Park in Tunisia, where a large population still remains. In 1986, a total of 20,000 individuals were estimated, with 0.7?ind/m², 4.4?cm adult mean size and low recruitment rate. In 2009, the estimated population reached 38,559 individuals with 2.65?ind/m², 5.42?cm adult mean size and high recruitment rate. During the present work, 43,790 individuals were estimated in 2012, 27,359 in 2013, 33,170 in 2014 and 40,404 in 2015, with an average density ranging from 0.1 to 8.5 individuals per square metre, but reaching as many as 25?ind/m² on some shores. This makes the archipelago one of the most important Mediterranean ‘hot spots’ for P. ferruginea, as it has a large and well-conserved population of this species. Variability of the population size is influenced by various biotic and abiotic factors, but is principally impacted by poaching of the species. The poachers target individuals larger than 6?cm in length, and the sex ratio study has shown that over 70% of individuals become females at that size. In addition, high recruitment rates were recorded in 2012 and 2013, but these decreased in 2014 and 2015, although population numbers show the opposite pattern. Moreover, growth rate is low and P. ferruginea may need many years to reach a large adult size. The loss of reproductive potential due to poaching inevitably causes a significant imbalance in the limpet population. Our results indicate the importance of the National Park for P. ferruginea and underline the need for this species to be protected and monitored over a long period to provide the most appropriate management measures.     

Invasive alien plants in marine protected areas: the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Spartina anglica</Emphasis> affair in the European Wadden Sea

The common cord-grass Spartina anglica, a fertile hybrid of S. maritima and S. alterniflora, was planted in the European Wadden Sea extensively during the late 1920s and 1930s to promote sediment accretion. After establishment, it colonised as a pioneer plant in the upper tidal zone, where it occurs frequently in coherent swards at the seaward front of saltmarshes and in patches on the tidal flats. Often, a conspicuous, almost monotypic, belt of S. anglica is formed. Over the last two decades, an increase in abundance and accelerated spread of S. anglica was observed, possibly promoted by warmer spring temperatures. This alien species may benefit from global warming, and there is considerable concern about its harmful impacts on the native biocoenoses and native biodiversity of the unique Wadden Sea ecosystem, encompassing effects on hydromorphodynamics and coastal protection. For a definitive assessment, however, an adequate quantification and comparison of documented and potential effects of S. anglica is important, but currently unavailable. Consequently, no management strategy exists for the prevention or restoration of the Wadden Sea ecosystem. Thus, the development of an alien species plan on the level of the Trilateral Cooperation on the Protection of the Wadden Sea is essential.     

Integrated conservation and development: evaluating a community-based marine protected area project for equality of socioeconomic impacts

Despite the prevalence of protected areas, evidence of their impacts on people is weak and remains hotly contested in conservation policy. A key question in this debate is whether socioeconomic impacts vary according to social subgroup. Given that social inequity can create conflict and impede poverty reduction, understanding how protected areas differentially affect people is critical to designing them to achieve social and biological goals. Understanding heterogeneous responses to protected areas can improve targeting of management activities and help elucidate the pathways through which impacts of protected areas occur. Here, we assessed whether the socioeconomic impacts of marine protected areas (MPAs)—designed to achieve goals for both conservation and poverty alleviation—differed according to age, gender or religion in associated villages in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Using data from pre-, mid- and post-implementation of the MPAs for control and project villages, we found little empirical evidence that impacts on five key socioeconomic indicators related to poverty differed according to social subgroup. We found suggestive empirical evidence that the effect of the MPAs on environmental knowledge differed by age and religion; over the medium and long terms, younger people and Muslims showed greater improvements compared with older people and Christians, respectively.     

中国海洋生态保护制度的转型发展--从海洋保护区走向海洋生态红线区

海洋生态环境的持续恶化与生态学认知的提高使海洋生态红线区管理制度成为必然。总结了中国海洋保护区现状与存在问题;分析了发展海洋生态红线的必要性、区划原则、概念及组成体系;提出海洋保护区与海洋生态红线区可分别籍空间统一性、决策统一性、工作内容与管理要求的一致性相关联,海洋保护区的核心、关键和重要因素与海洋生态红线的范围划定、宏观应对策略制定、微观管理规定一一对应。对海洋保护区管理向海洋生态红线区划与管理的转变给出了若干建议,认为海洋生态红线区划指标体系可以参照海洋保护区绩效评估、保护区选划与评估指标;并从海洋生态红线的尺度,陆海统筹的生态系统格局-结构\过程-机理,复杂生态系统与海洋生态红线的结合,海洋生态红线基点观测等方面对海洋生态红线的研究和工作方向进行了展望。     

Measuring the long-term success of small-scale marine protected areas in a Philippine reef fishery

Tropical coral reefs are subject to multiple pressures from both natural and anthropogenic sources. These pressures have caused widespread declines in reef health, resulting in the increased use of spatial management tools such as marine protected areas (MPAs). MPAs have proven generally effective if well designed and enforced, but there are limited long-term studies investigating how the presence of small-scale MPAs affects fish populations and reef communities. Using a 12-year time series, we found that small-scale (10–50 ha) community-managed MPAs along the Danajon Bank of the Philippines preserved average fish biomass within their boundaries over time relative to surrounding fished reefs. Unprotected areas are, however, showing significant long-term biomass decline. MPAs were also found to preserve more key trophic groups and larger-bodied commercially targeted reef fish families. Fish biomass of piscivore, scavenger and invertivore trophic groups inside individual MPAs is, however, still declining at a similar rate as outside. Surprisingly, long-term benthic cover and growth form composition were not significantly affected overall by MPA presence, despite the sporadic use of highly destructive dynamite fishing in this region. Coral cover has remained historically low (21–28%) throughout the study, following widespread bleaching mortality. While management tempered overall abundance declines, we found that irrespective of MPA presence, there was a generalised decline of both large- and small-bodied fish size groups across the study region, most steeply within the 20–30 cm length fish, and a shift towards proportionally higher abundances of small (5–10 cm) fish. This indicates a combination of over-exploitation, inadequate MPA size and coverage for larger fish, and the lingering effects of the 1998 bleaching event. Generalised shifts in body size and trophic structure reported here could lead to future reductions in fishery productivity and stability and will be further exacerbated unless broader fishery regulations and enforcement is instated.

     

Best practices for improved governance of coral reef marine protected areas

Coral reef marine protected areas (MPA) are widely distributed around the globe for social and ecological reasons. Relatively few of these MPAs are well managed. This review examines the governance of coral reef MPAs and the means to improve coral reef MPA management. It highlights common governance challenges, such as confused goals, conflict, and unrealistic attempts to scale up beyond institutional capacity. Recommendations, based on field experience and empirical evidence from around the world, are made for best practices at various stages of MPA implementation.

The selection and design of marine protected areas: Australia as a case study

Recently there has been increased interest in the use of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) as tools for the conservation of marine habitats and species. This has resulted in the declaration of many MPAs around the world. Despite this activity there have been few tests of hypotheses about the design criteria for selection and management of these areas, resulting in a haphazard and ad hoc selection of protected areas, with conflicting and inconsistent terminology and objectives. The application of appropriately tested scientific information to the design of MPAs will increase the likelihood of success in the future.To 1st January 1992, 267 MPAs had been declared in Australia, covering a total area of ca 400 019 km². The history of their declaration has been sporadic and uneven. Conflicts over State and Federal legislation and, within states, conflicts over jurisdiction among agencies caused by overlapping responsibilities, have at times slowed the declaration of MPAs. In this paper, the history of MPAs in Australia is used as a case study to discuss the problems, both biological and administrative, of declaring MPAs.