斜纹夜蛾取食四种植物对马尼拉侧沟茧蜂发育和繁殖的影响

研究斜纹夜蛾Spodoptera litura幼虫取食4种植物后对马尼拉侧沟茧蜂Microplitis manilae生长发育和繁殖的影响,为利用该蜂开展斜纹夜蛾的生物防治提供理论依据。在人工气候箱内(26℃±1℃、RH 65%±5%、L∶D=12∶12)研究了斜纹夜蛾取食豇豆Vigna unguiculata、芋艿Colocasia esculenta、烟草Nicotiana tabacum和芥蓝Brassica alboglabra 4种植物对马尼拉侧沟茧蜂的生长发育和繁殖的影响。结果表明:马尼拉侧沟茧蜂寄生取食豇豆的夜蛾幼虫,其幼虫期最短,化蛹率、羽化率和累计存活率最高,性比最低,寿命最长;寄生取食烟草的夜蛾幼虫,其幼虫期最长,化蛹率、羽化率和累计存活率最低,蛹重最轻,蛹期最长;从取食芥蓝的斜纹夜蛾幼虫体内育出的雌蜂产卵量最高,但成蜂寿命最短;斜纹夜蛾取食4种植物对雌蜂个体大小无显著影响,但取食烟草的夜蛾幼虫体内育出的雄蜂个体最小。马尼拉侧沟茧蜂寄生取食不同植物的斜纹夜蛾幼虫,马尼拉侧沟茧蜂的发育和繁殖存在显著差异。     

Ni~(2+)对不同发育阶段斜纹夜蛾虫体血淋巴能量物质的影响

研究了饲料中不同浓度的Ni2+(140mg/kg)对连续3个世代斜纹夜蛾Spodoptera litura Fabricius6龄末幼虫、蛹和成虫血淋巴中能量物质总糖、蛋白质和脂肪含量及血淋巴中热量值的影响。结果表明,Ni2+胁迫1个世代,6龄末幼虫、蛹和成虫血淋巴中的总糖含量均低于对照,而血淋巴中的蛋白质含量则在低浓度Ni2+胁迫下增高,在高浓度Ni2+胁迫下降低;只有受120mg/kg Ni2+胁迫的6龄末幼虫血淋巴的脂肪含量高于对照,而蛹和成虫血淋巴中的脂肪含量及热量值均低于对照。在Ni2+胁迫的第2、3代,6龄末幼虫、蛹和成虫血淋巴中的总糖、蛋白含量和热量值与饲料中Ni2+浓度的反应关系均表现为低浓度Ni2+胁迫增加而高浓度Ni2+胁迫降低的趋势;然而,血淋巴中的脂肪含量随饲料中Ni2+浓度的增加而降低。因此,重金属Ni2+对S.litura能量物质的影响与虫体内能量物质的种类和虫体的发育阶段有一定的关联。     

淡足侧沟茧蜂对甜菜夜蛾和斜纹夜蛾的寄生选择性研究

应用2因素2次回归正交旋转组合设计研究了淡足侧沟茧蜂Microplitis pallidipes对甜菜夜蛾Spodoptera exigua (Hubner)、斜纹夜蛾Spodoptera litura的寄生选择性,并建立了2种寄主共存时的被寄生模型.主效分析表明,甜菜夜蛾和斜纹夜蛾幼虫被寄生虫数均随寄主自身密度的增加而增加;淡足侧沟茧蜂对2种寄主无明显的选择性,对甜菜夜蛾、斜纹夜蛾幼虫共存时的选择寄生比率分别为0.5211、0.4788.在人工繁殖淡足侧沟茧蜂时,可以利用易于人工繁殖的斜纹夜蛾做为繁蜂寄主,提高淡足侧沟茧蜂的繁殖速度,降低繁蜂成本.在甜菜夜蛾、斜纹夜蛾发生期,可保护利用淡足侧沟茧蜂来控制蔬菜夜蛾.     

淡足侧沟茧蜂寄生对草地贪夜蛾幼虫血淋巴黑化反应及酚氧化酶的影响

【目的】明确淡足侧沟茧蜂Microplitis pallidipes寄生对草地贪夜蛾Spodoptera frugiperda血淋巴黑化率、酚氧化酶原（Prophenoloxidase,PPO）基因表达量和酚氧化酶（Phenoloxidase,PO）活性的影响,为更有效的利用淡足侧沟茧蜂防控草地贪夜蛾提供理论依据。【方法】通过室内寄生实验确定草地贪夜蛾被淡足侧沟茧蜂寄生的最佳龄期;通过RT-qPCR分析草地贪夜蛾两个PPO基因（SfPPO1和SfPPO2）的时空表达谱;通过薄膜法统计草地贪夜蛾被寄生后的血淋巴黑化率;采用吸光光度法测定草地贪夜蛾被寄生后的血淋巴PO活性;采用RT-qPCR测定草地贪夜蛾被寄生后血淋巴SfPPO1和SfPPO2的相对基因表达量。【结果】草地贪夜蛾被淡足侧沟茧蜂寄生的最佳龄期为3龄幼虫,SfPPO1和SfPPO2均在卵块和4龄幼虫中基因表达量较高,且主要在幼虫血淋巴中表达。草地贪夜蛾被寄生后12、24、48和72 h的血淋巴黑化率显著低于未寄生组（P<0.05）,SfPPO1和SfPPO2的相对基因表达量和PO活性也低于未寄生组。相关关系分析表明,SfPPO1的相对基因表达量与SfPPO2的表达量呈现线性关系（R2=0.9124）,PO活性与两个PPO基因相对表达量之间、黑化率与PO活性和PPO基因相对表达量之间均呈现正相关。【结论】淡足侧沟茧蜂寄生会抑制草地贪夜蛾血淋巴的黑化率,下调血淋巴中酚氧化酶原基因的表达量和PO活性,且PO活性、PPO基因相对表达量及血淋巴黑化率3个指标之中,两两之间均呈现正相关性。     

淡足侧沟茧蜂寄生对甜菜夜蛾幼虫血淋巴保护酶和免疫酶的影响

[目的]为探讨淡足侧沟茧蜂Microplitis pallidipes Szepligeti调控寄主甜菜夜蛾Spodoptera exigua(H(u|¨)bner)的生理机制。[方法]测定了淡足侧沟茧蜂寄生甜菜夜蛾后,寄主幼虫血淋巴中保护酶(SOD、CAT及POD)和免疫酶(PO和LSZ)活性的变化。[结果]寄生后连续5 d观察时间内,从寄生后第1天开始,寄主幼虫血淋巴中SOD活性就高于未寄生幼虫(对照),且在寄生后第4~5天达到显著水平;被寄生幼虫血淋巴中CAT活性始终高于对照幼虫,且在寄生后第1、第4~5天达到显著水平;同样,甜菜夜蛾被寄生后,其血淋巴中POD活性明显高于对照幼虫,且在寄生后第1~2、第5天达显著水平;寄生后第1天,寄生与对照组酚氧化酶活性差异不显著,但寄生后第2~5天均达到显著水平;较对照组,寄生后第1~2天,被寄生幼虫溶菌酶活性增加但无显著差异,而寄生后3~4d溶菌酶活性显著降低。[结论]本研究揭示,淡足侧沟茧蜂寄生刺激了甜菜夜蛾幼虫体内的应激反应,诱导寄主体内SOD、CAT和POD活性明显上升,阻止寄生蜂成功寄生;同时,寄生蜂寄生诱导了寄主免疫酶(PO、LSZ)活性的变化,免疫酶活性的变化是寄主免疫系统对寄生蜂寄生的一种应急免疫反应。     

核型多角体病毒与侧沟茧蜂对斜纹夜蛾幼虫的协同作用

研究了斜纹夜蛾幼虫体内的斜纹夜蛾侧沟茧蜂存活率、发育历期、寄主感染病毒时间、病毒浓度之间的关系,并测定了斜纹夜蛾侧沟茧蜂的传毒效率．结果表明,病毒对寄主体内寄生蜂历期无明显影响,寄生在幼虫体内的寄生蜂能在寄主病死前完成发育,存活比例因寄主感染病毒的时间和浓度而异．斜纹夜蛾被寄生后接种病毒(SINPV),距离寄生时间越长,饲毒浓度越低,寄生蜂完成发育的比例越大,但饲毒时间是主要影响因素．从感病幼虫体内发育成的侧沟茧蜂或曾经在感病寄主上产过卵的寄生蜂,以及通过人工方式使产卵器被病毒污染的寄生蜂,均能携带一定数量的病毒．通过产卵活动,侧沟茧蜂成蜂能在寄主幼虫个体间传递病毒．当寄生蜂在感病的寄主幼虫上产卵带毒后,平均可传递病毒给2．14头幼虫;发育于感病幼虫体内的寄生蜂,平均可传递病毒给2．45头幼虫．通过用病毒液浸茧或用混有病毒的蜂蜜饲喂成蜂等方式使产卵器污染病毒的寄生蜂,传毒效率随饲毒浓度增加而提高,平均可传递病毒1．45头和0．94头幼虫     

Ni2+胁迫对斜纹夜蛾幼虫血淋巴中能量物质水平的适应性调节

为明确食物中重金属胁迫对昆虫血淋巴能量物质和生长的影响,本研究测定了饲料中不同浓度的Ni²⁺ （1~40 mg/kg）对连续3个世代斜纹夜蛾Spodoptera litura Fabricius 5龄始龄（0 h）至6龄末幼虫（分别记为0,24,48,72,96和120 h幼虫）血淋巴中能量物质总糖、蛋白质和脂肪含量,血淋巴中热量值及5龄和6龄幼虫体重的影响。结果表明：第1和2代48 h和96 h幼虫血淋巴的总糖含量均低于对照;而连续3代其他处理幼虫血淋巴中的总糖含量均在低浓度Ni²⁺（1~5 mg/kg）胁迫下增高,在高浓度Ni²⁺ （20~40 mg/kg）胁迫下降低。连续3个世代的Ni²⁺胁迫均显著降低了0~48 h幼虫血淋巴中的蛋白含量;低浓度Ni²⁺（1~5 mg/kg）胁迫增加了连续3代72~120 h幼虫血淋巴中的蛋白含量,而高浓度Ni²⁺（20~40 mg/kg）胁迫只降低了第1代72~120 h幼虫以及第2代72 h幼虫血淋巴中的蛋白含量。第1代0 h,48~72 h和120 h幼虫血淋巴中的脂肪含量在1~20 mg/kg Ni²⁺胁迫下均高于对照,但24 h和96 h幼虫血淋巴中的脂肪含量均低于对照中的含量。连续3代0~48 h幼虫血淋巴中的热量值均随饲料中Ni²⁺浓度的增加而降低;低浓度Ni²⁺胁迫（1~5 mg/kg）增加,而高浓度Ni²⁺（20~40 mg/kg）的胁迫降低第2和3代72 ~120 h幼虫血淋巴中热量值。同时,低浓度Ni2+胁迫增加而高浓度Ni²⁺胁迫降低了第3代5龄和6龄幼虫的体重。因此推测,Ni²⁺胁迫对S. litura幼虫血淋巴的能源物质含量以及热量值的影响与能量物质的种类、虫体的发育阶段和Ni²⁺的胁迫世代等都有一定的联系。     

镉胁迫对草地贪夜蛾生长发育及松毛虫赤眼蜂寄生的影响

【目的】为探究镉胁迫对植食性昆虫草地贪夜蛾Spodoptera frugiperda的影响以及是否通过“bottom-up”级联效应影响赤眼蜂Trichogramma的寄生能力。【方法】在室内调查了孵化24 h内的草地贪夜蛾幼虫取食添加了不同浓度(0,0.2和51.2 mg/kg)Cd²⁺的饲料后,草地贪夜蛾生长发育和繁殖力(单雌产卵量)和子一代卵内镉含量,并调查了松毛虫赤眼蜂T.dendrolimi成蜂对低浓度(0.2 mg/kg) Cd²⁺胁迫的草地贪夜蛾卵的寄生能力及偏好性。【结果】与对照(正常人工饲料)相比,人工饲料中0.2和51.2 mg/kg Cd²⁺均导致草地贪夜蛾幼虫历期显著延长、雌蛹重显著降低;高浓度(51.2 mg/kg)Cd²⁺处理下草地贪夜蛾的化蛹率、成虫羽化率、成虫寿命和单雌产卵量均显著降低;而低浓度(0.2 mg/kg)Cd²⁺处理下草地贪夜蛾的单雌产卵量略高于对照,且低浓度Cd²⁺胁迫下草地贪夜蛾卵的镉含量为1.03 mg/k...     

斜纹夜幼虫对食物中重金属Ni2+的积累与排泄

为明确食物中重金属离子在昆虫体内的分布和转移情况,本文采用等离子体原子发射光谱仪检测了植食性昆虫斜纹夜蛾Spodoptera litura Fabricius连续3个世代6龄幼虫对食物中过量Ni²⁺的排泄和积累情况。结果表明：大部分Ni²⁺可通过粪便排出体外;沉积在体内的Ni²⁺主要积累在中肠,部分Ni²⁺可通过中肠上皮细胞基底膜进入血淋巴,经由血淋巴的转运作用积累在脂肪体和表皮等组织中。6龄幼虫不同组织中所积累Ni²⁺的含量为中肠>脂肪体>表皮,且不同组织和粪便中的Ni²⁺都随饲料中Ni²⁺浓度的增加而增加,并存在显著的剂量-反应关系。研究结果可为进一步研究过量Ni²⁺对斜纹夜蛾幼虫的生长发育和繁殖的影响,以及斜纹夜蛾幼虫不同组织对Ni²⁺的解毒能力等提供一定依据。     

取食重金属铜对棕尾别麻蝇亲代及子代生长发育与繁殖的影响

为了评估取食含重金属铜饲料对棕尾别麻蝇Boettcherisca peregrine亲代及子代的生长发育与繁殖的影响,在室内给棕尾别麻蝇初产幼虫饲喂含不同浓度（200, 400,800和1 600 µg/g）Cu²⁺的饲料直至化蛹,并对亲代和子代的生长发育和繁殖有关指标进行了观察和分析。结果表明：低浓度的Cu²⁺（200 µg/g）对其体重和体长起促进作用,但对幼虫历期、化蛹率、蛹历期、羽化率、性比、交配率和产仔量无显著作用;较高浓度的Cu²⁺ 则有抑制作用,且Cu²⁺处理浓度越高,亲代幼虫、蛹和雌雄成虫的体重越轻,幼虫和蛹的体长越短,化蛹率、羽化率、交配率和产仔量越低,幼虫历期和蛹期越长,成虫寿命越短。但Cu²⁺处理对成虫性比则无显著的影响。相比之下,经Cu²⁺处理后雌虫所产的子代若不再经Cu²⁺处理,其子代生存、生长发育与繁殖则基本不受影响,说明Cu²⁺对亲代的影响不能遗传至子代。此外,还探讨了该蝇亲代与子代体内Cu²⁺含量在其变态过程中的变化。     

斑痣悬茧蜂寄生、发育和生殖特征与寄主幼虫日龄的关系

【目的】“圆屋顶形”假说认为,对单寄生性姬蜂和茧蜂适合度而言,中间龄期幼虫寄主的品质高于更早和更晚龄期幼虫。该假说得到许多研究支持,但这些研究常以寄主幼虫脱皮划分虫龄,很少观测生殖特征,从而难以确切和全面描述适合度随寄主生长发育变化而变化的关系。本研究旨在检验“圆屋顶形”假说。【方法】本研究以斜纹夜蛾Spodoptera litura不同日龄幼虫为寄主,观测斑痣悬茧蜂Meteorus pulchricornis寄生和发育特征,并测定成蜂生殖力。【结果】线性回归分析表明,雌蜂对中间日龄寄主幼虫的寄生率大于对两端日龄寄主幼虫的寄生率;蜂卵至成虫的存活、成虫体型大小及其生殖力（产卵量）等适合度相关特征均表现出中间日龄寄主幼虫处理大于两端日龄幼虫处理。【结论】研究结果支持“圆屋顶形”假说。     

寄生取食Cry1Ab杀虫蛋白的粘虫幼虫对伞裙追寄蝇寄生率及生长发育的影响

【Aim】 To demonstrate the effect of transgenic Bt-crop on the bionomics of the tachinid fly Exorista civilis Rondani, the parasitism rate and life history parameters of E. civilis developed from larvae of the oriental armyworm, Mythimna separata (Walker), fed on artificial diets with Cry1Ab toxin were investigated in laboratory. 【Methods】 M. separata larvae were fed on diets containing 0, 3.125, 6.25, 12.5 and 25 μg/g of Cry1Ab toxin, respectively, and used as the host for E. civilis. The parameters related to the parasitism and the growth and development of E. civilis on the host were observed and recorded. 【Results】 The results showed that the parasitism rate and fecundity of the fly on M. separata larvae feeding on diets containing various doses of Cry1Ab protein were insignificantly different (P≥0.05), suggesting that host selective behavior of the E. civilis is not affected by the dose of Bt-toxin in the caterpillar. The developmental period (egg-larva, pupa, adult oviposition and generation), emergence rate, sex ratio, and fecundity of E. civilis developed from M. separata larvae treated by various concentrations of Cry1Ab toxin were insignificantly different (P≥0.05). However, the survival rate of the maggots in the host feeding on diet containing 3.125 μg/g of Cry1Ab toxin was significantly greater than that of the control and the rest treatments (P<0.05), while insignificantly different among the remained 4 treatments (P≥0.05). The pupal weight significantly declined as the concentration of Cry1Ab toxin fed by their hosts increased (P<0.05). The pupal weight in the control group was 49.8 mg, while that in treatment groups of 6.25 and 25 μg/g Cry1Ab toxin was only 41.0 and 36.7 mg, respectively. 【Conclusion】 These results indicate that parasitizing host M. separata larvae fed with Cry1Ab toxin has no dramatically negative effect on parasitoid E. civilis. This study provides a basis for the evaluation of the risk of transgenic Bt-crops on the tachinid parasitoids in fields.     

Bioecological characteristics of Bassus tumidulus (Nees) (Hym., Braconidae), a parasitoid of the poplar twig borer, Gypsonoma aceriana (Dup.) (Lep., Tortricidae) in Bulgaria

Main aspects of biology and ecology of Bassus tumidulus (Nees), a parasitoid of Gypsonoma aceriana (Dup.), were studied during the period 1989–2000. Poplar tender shoots with G. aceriana larvae were collected at four localities in Bulgaria (Sofia, Svoge, Vardim and Pazardzhik) and examined in laboratory conditions. B. tumidulus was recovered in the Sofia and Svoge localities. It is a solitary internal parasitoid that attacks young larvae of G. aceriana (first–second instars) and kills host pre‐pupae. It develops two generations and overwinters as a larva in the host. Adult emergence of both overwintering and summer generation of B. tumidulus coincides with adult emergence of the host. In 1997, the first generation emergence of B. tumidulus was in relatively good synchrony with the first larval population of G. aceriana. However, the second generation B. tumidulus was not very well synchronized with the life cycle of G. aceriana because adult parasitoids appeared mostly in the beginning of the host larval population. The average mortality of G. aceriana, caused by this parasitoid in 1997 in Sofia, was 15.7 and 23.3% for the overwintering and summer generation, respectively. The highest level of parasitism by B. tumidulus, observed in individual study, was 61.5%, occurring during the summer generation in 1997.     

Survival and development of Campoletis chlorideae on various insect and crop hosts: implications for Bt-transgenic crops

Abstract:  The parasitic wasp, Campoletis chlorideae is an important larval parasitoid of Helicoverpa armigera a serious pest of cotton, grain legumes and cereals. Large-scale deployment of Bt -transgenic crops with resistance to H. armigera may have potential consequences for the development and survival of C. chlorideae . Therefore, we studied the tritrophic interactions of C. chlorideae involving eight insect host species and six host crops under laboratory conditions. The recovery of H. armigera larvae following release was greater on pigeonpea and chickpea when compared with cotton, groundnut and pearl millet. The parasitism by C. chlorideae females was least with reduction in cocoon formation and adult emergence on H. armigera larvae released on chickpea. Host insects also had significant effect on the development and survival of C. chlorideae . The larval period of C. chlorideae was prolonged by 2–3 days on Spodoptera exigua , Mythimna separata and Achaea janata when compared with H. armigera , Helicoverpa assulta and Spodoptera litura . Maximum cocoon formation and adult emergence were recorded on H. armigera (82.4% and 70.5%, respectively) than on other insect hosts. These studies have important implications on development and survival of C. chlorideae on alternate insect hosts on non-transgenic crop plants, when there is paucity of H. armigera larvae on transgenic crops expressing Bt -toxins.     

Notes on the biology and ecology of the parasitoids of the poplar clearwing moth, Paranthrene tabaniformis (Rott.) (Lep., Sesiidae) in Bulgaria. II. Eriborus terebrans (Gravenhorst, 1826) (Hym., Ichneumonidae)

The biology and ecology of Eriborus terebrans (Grav.), a parasitoid of the poplar clearwing moth, Paranthrene tabaniformis (Rott.), were studied during the period 1987–98. One-year-old poplar ( Populus spp.) shoots infested with P. tabaniformis larvae were collected from poplar seedlings at 11 localities in Bulgaria and examined in both field and laboratory conditions. Eriborus terebrans was recorded in seven localities as a solitary internal larval parasitoid of P. tabaniformis which developed two generations in early and mid-stage host larvae. Eriborus terebrans overwintered as a larva in P. tabaniformis overwintering larvae. In the field adult parasitoids of the overwintering generation appeared between late April/early May, and June or July. The peak activity of E. terebrans adults only coincided with the beginning of host emergence, which resulted in low levels of parasitism, being no more than 6.2%. Parasitoid adults of the summer generation appeared in late June–mid August. In this period enough larvae of the host were suitable for attacking and parasitism reached 24.4–39% in some cases. The average mortality of P. tabaniformis overwintering larvae caused by this parasitoid in Bulgaria during the period of the study was 4.7%. A significant part of the parasitized P. tabaniformis larvae constructed tunnel structures of frass and silk threads over the external openings of the galleries. It is possible that these structures protect the parasitoid cocoons from natural enemies – hyperparasitoids and predators.     

Host behaviour manipulation as an evolutionary route towards attenuation of parasitoid virulence

By definition, insect parasitoids kill their host during their development. Data are presented showing that ladybirds not only can survive parasitism by Dinocampus coccinellae, but also can retain their capacity to reproduce following parasitoid emergence. We hypothesize that host behaviour manipulation constitutes a preadaptation leading to the attenuation of parasitoid virulence. Following larval development, the parasitoid egresses from the host and spins a cocoon between the ladybird's legs. Throughout parasitoid pupation, the manipulated host acts as a bodyguard to protect the parasitoid cocoon from predation. The parasitoid has evolved mechanisms to avoid killing the host prematurely so that its own survival is not compromised. Bodyguard manipulation may thus constitute a selective trait for the evolution of true parasitism in some host–parasitoid associations.     

不同方式诱导植物抗性对甜菜夜蛾幼虫及其寄生蜂斑痣悬茧蜂发育表现的影响

【目的】明确诱导植物抗性对植食性昆虫甜菜夜蛾 Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) 及内寄生蜂斑痣悬茧蜂 Meteorus pulchricornis (Wesmael) 生长发育的影响。【方法】采用取食损伤、机械损伤及外源喷施3种浓度 (0.01, 0.1和1 mmol/L) 茉莉酸甲酯 (MeJA) 3种方式来诱导菜薹抗性,观察甜菜夜蛾初孵幼虫及其寄生蜂斑痣悬茧蜂的发育表现。【结果】取食取食损伤和茉莉酸甲酯处理的菜薹后,甜菜夜蛾幼虫存活率显著降低,茉莉酸甲酯浓度与幼虫存活呈负相关; 取食0.1 mmol/L MeJA处理的菜薹后,甜菜夜蛾幼虫体重显著低于清水对照。甜菜夜蛾取食取食损伤和0.1 mmol/L MeJA处理的菜薹,其寄生蜂斑痣悬茧蜂幼虫的死亡率显著增加,同时结茧率显著降低;0.1 mmol/L MeJA处理的菜薹使成蜂体重显著低于对照。不同处理间斑痣悬茧蜂的卵巢发育无明显差异,卵巢由8~10根卵巢管组成,羽化24 h后成熟卵数量为7~10个,成熟卵的长度和宽度分别为350和78 μm。【结论】结果说明,取食损伤和茉莉酸甲酯处理诱导的菜薹反应会影响甜菜夜蛾的存活和大小,进而抑制斑痣悬茧蜂生长。     

Assessing augmentative releases of parasitoids using the «Recruitment method», with reference toEdovum puttleri,a parasitoid of the colorado potato beetle [Coleoptera: chrysomelidae]

Release of approximately 17,700 experienced adult femaleEdovum puttleri Grissell against 1^st generation Colorado potato beetle eggs in 1987 in a 0.4 ha potato field in S. Deerfield, Massachusetts resulted in only 3.6% parasitism as assessed by direct measurement of host and parasitoid recruitment. Levels of non-viability indicated an additional 2.8% of hosts killed by parasitoid hostfeeding, for an overall impact of 6.4%. Release in 1988 of 126,300 parasitoid against 1^st generation hosts in a 0.4 ha potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) field at the same site produced only slightly higher levels of parasitism (10.6%) and host feeding (2.0%). Release in 1987 of 32,800 wasps against 2^nd generation eggs resulted in only 0.7% parasitism and 0.3% host feeding due to the toxicity of fenvalerate (Pydrin^R) residues from a single application applied for control of the potato leafhopper,Empoasca fabae (Harris). Release in 1988 of 47,400 wasps against the 2^nd host generation in the absence of any pesticide applications resulted in 34.4% parasitism and 16.1% host feeding, for a total impact of 50.5%. Difference in parasitization levels between host generations supports the idea thatE. puttleri adults require an in-field carbohydrate source such as aphid honeydew to reproduce. In Massachusetts, aphid populations in potato typically do not develop until the end of the 1^st larval generation. The recruitment method ofVan Driesche & Bellows (1988) proved to be a satisfactory approach for determining results of augmentative parasitoid releases.      

Optimum and maximum host sizes at parasitism for the endoparasitoid Hyposoter didymator (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) differ greatly between two host species

Host size is considered a reliable indicator of host quality and an important determinant of parasitoid fitness. Koinobiont parasitoids attack hosts that continue feeding and growing during parasitism. In contrast with hemolymph-feeding koinobionts, tissue-feeding koinobionts face not only a minimum host size for successful development but also a maximum host size, because consumption of the entire host is often necessary for successful egression. Here we study interactions between a generalist tissue-feeding larval endoparasitoid, Hyposoter didymator Thunberg (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) and two of its natural hosts, Spodoptera exigua Hübner and Chrysodeixis chalcites Esper (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Larvae of C. chalcites are up to three times larger than corresponding instars of S. exigua and also attain much higher terminal masses before pupation. We hypothesized that the range of host instars suitable for successful parasitism by H. didymator would be much more restricted in the large host C. chalcites than in the smaller S. exigua. To test this hypothesis, we monitored development of H. didymator in all instars of both host species and measured survival, larval development time, and adult body mass of the parasitioid. In contrast with our predictions, C. chalcites was qualitatively superior to S. exigua in terms of the survival of parasitized hosts, the proportion of parasitoids able to complete development, and adult parasitoid size. However, in both hosts, the proportion of mature parasitoid larvae that successfully developed into adults was low at the largest host sizes. Our results suggest that qualitative, as well as quantitative, factors are important in the success of tissue-feeding parasitoids.     

Spodoptera litura multicapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus inhibits Microplitis bicoloratus polydnavirus-induced host granulocytes apoptosis

Baculoviruses and parasitoids are critically important biological control agents in integrated pest management (IPM). They have been simultaneously and sequentially used to target insect pests. In this study, we examined the impacts of both baculovirus and polydnavirus (PDV) infection on the host cellular immune response. Larvae of the lepidopteran Spodoptera litura were infected by Spodoptera litura multicapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus (SpltMNPV) and then the animals were parasitized by the braconid wasp Microplitis bicoloratus. The fate of the parasitoids in the dually infected hosts was followed and encapsulation of M. bicoloratus first instar larvae was observed. Hemocytes of S. litura larvae underwent apoptosis in naturally parasitized hosts and in non-parasitized larvae after injection of M. bicoloratus ovarian calyx fluid (containing MbPDV) plus venom (CFPV). However, assessments of the percentages of cells undergoing apoptosis under different treatments indicated that SpltMNPV could inhibit MbPDV-induced apoptosis in hemocytes when hosts were first injected with SpltMNPV budded virus (BV) followed by injection with M. bicoloratus CFPV. As the time of injection with SpltMNPV BV increased, the percentages of apoptosis in hemocytes population declined. Furthermore, in vitro, the percentages of apoptosis showed that SpltMNPV BV could inhibit MbPDV-induced granulocytes apoptosis. The occurrence of MbPDV-induced host granulocytes apoptosis was inhibited in the dually infected hosts. As hemocytes apoptosis causes host immunosuppression, the parasitoids are normally protected from the host immune system. However, in larvae infected with both baculovirus and PDV, the parasitoids underwent encapsulation in the host hemocoel.