The role of crustacean fisheries and aquaculture in global food security: past, present and future

The 1996 World Food Summit defined food security as "Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life". This paper looks at the status of production from both shrimp capture fisheries and shrimp aquaculture, as well as trade, in order to understand the contribution of the crustacean sector to overall fish production and thus to global food security. This paper also examines some sustainability issues that will potentially affect the contribution of the crustacean sector (particularly shrimp) to food security. These include sustainable shrimp capture fisheries, sustainable shrimp trade and sustainable shrimp aquaculture. The paper concludes that crustaceans are an important source of aquatic food protein. Production (as food and ornamental) and trade are extremely important for developing countries. It provides both economic development and empowerment in terms of contribution to GDP, consumption, employment, catch value and exports. The crustacean sector generates high value export products which enables producers to buy lower value products in the world market - thus a positive contribution to food security in both producing and exporting countries.     

Edible insects: Traditional knowledge or western phobia?

With an increasing human population and environmental degradation, the world faces a major problem in providing adequate animal based proteins. Many traditional societies have used or still use insects as a protein source, while westernized societies are reluctant to use insects, despite being the major consumers of animal proteins. We now need to consider insects as a source of food for humans in a manner that acknowledges both the role of entomophagy in indigenous societies and the need for westernized societies to reduce the size of their environmental footprint with regard to food production. The situation on continents such as Africa, Asia, and Central and South America has some parallels to Australia in that there are two forces in operation: the sustainable traditional use of edible insects and the "westernization" of these societies leading to a movement away from entomophagy. However, the potential to reach a compromise is greater in these continents because entomophagy is already accepted. The major challenges will be establishing sustainable production systems that include food safety and security as well as environmental protection. Whether this will happen or not will depend upon: (i) a major change in attitude in westernized societies towards entomophagy; (ii) pressure to conserve remaining habitats in a sustainable manner; (iii) economic impetus to develop food production systems that include insects; and (iv) an acknowledgement that achieving adequate nutrition on a global basis will involve different diets in much of the developed world.     

How can plant genetic engineering contribute to cost-effective fish vaccine development for promoting sustainable aquaculture?

Aquaculture, the fastest growing food-producing sector, now accounts for nearly 50 % of the world’s food fish (FAO in The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. FAO, Rome, 2010). The global aquaculture production of food fish reached 62.7 million tonnes in 2011 and is continuously increasing with an estimated production of food fish of 66.5 million tonnes in 2012 (a 9.4 % increase in 1 year, FAO, www.fao.org/fishery/topic/16140). Aquaculture is not only important for sustainable protein-based food fish production but also for the aquaculture industry and economy worldwide. Disease prevention is the key issue to maintain a sustainable development of aquaculture. Widespread use of antibiotics in aquaculture has led to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the accumulation of antibiotics in the environment, resulting in water and soil pollution. Thus, vaccination is the most effective and environmentally-friendly approach to combat diseases in aquaculture to manage fish health. Furthermore, when compared to >760 vaccines against human diseases, there are only about 30 fish vaccines commercially available, suggesting the urgent need for development and cost-effective production of fish vaccines for managing fish health, especially in the fast growing fish farming in Asia where profit is minimal and therefore given high priority. Plant genetic engineering has made significant contributions to production of biotech crops for food, feed, valuable recombinant proteins etc. in the past three decades. The use of plants for vaccine production offers several advantages such as low cost, safety and easy scaling up. To date a large number of plant-derived vaccines, antibodies and therapeutic proteins have been produced for human health, of which a few have been made commercially available. However, the development of animal vaccines in plants, especially fish vaccines by genetic engineering, has not yet been addressed. Therefore, there is a need to exploit plant biotechnology for cost effective fish vaccine development in plants, in particular, edible crops for oral fish vaccines. This review provides insight into (1) the current status of fish vaccine and vaccination in aquaculture, (2) plant biotechnology and edible crops for fish vaccines for oral administration, (3) regulatory constraints and (4) conclusions and future perspectives.     

Dietary self-selection in fish: a new approach to studying fish nutrition and feeding behavior

The principles of modern aquaculture encourage the development of fish feeds containing low fish meal content and several types of plant ingredients plus nutrients to avoid depleting global fish stocks and to reduce costs. However, food constituents can affect animal nutrition and feeding behavior, so the effect of different diets on fish behavior and growth needs to be understood to optimize the use of nutrients and to improve fish welfare. The development of multiple-choice self-feeding systems led to a new perspective for investigating these issues in aquaculture species. Our purpose with this review is to summarize the information that has been published to date on this topic and to identify gaps in knowledge where research is needed. Key subjects are assessed under the following major headings: How do we study dietary selection in fish? What food signals do fish use to choose the right diet? and How do fish respond to food challenges? The present review will provide a picture of the main results obtained to date in these studies in aquaculture fish species, as well as perspectives for future research in the field.     

A Scoping Analysis of Peer-Reviewed Literature About Linkages Between Aquaculture and Determinants of Human Health

For many of the world’s poor, aquatic products are critical for food security and health. Because the global population is increasing as wild aquatic stocks are declining, aquaculture is an increasingly important source of aquatic products. We undertook a scoping review of the English-language peer-reviewed literature to evaluate how the research community has examined the impacts of aquaculture on four key determinants of human health: poverty, food security, food production sustainability, and gender equality. The review returned 156 primary research articles. Most research (75%) was focused in Asia, with limited research from Africa (10%) and South America (2%). Most research (80%) focused on freshwater finfish and shrimp production. We used qualitative content analysis of records which revealed 11 themes: famer income; the common environment; shared resources; integrated farming/ polyculture; employment; extensive vs. intensive production; local vs. distant ownership; food security; income equity; gender equality; and input costs. We used quantitative content analysis of records and full-text publications about freshwater finfish and shrimp aquaculture to record the frequency with which themes were represented and the positive or negative impacts of aquaculture associated with each theme. Scatter plots showed that no theme was identified in more than half of all articles and publications for both production types. Farmer income was a theme that was identified commonly and was positively impacted by both shrimp and fresh water finfish aquaculture. Polyculture, employment, and local ownership were identified less often as themes, but were also associated with positive impacts. The common environment and shared resources were more common themes in shrimp aquaculture than freshwater finfish aquaculture research, while polyculture and local ownership were more common themes in freshwater finfish aquaculture than shrimp aquaculture. Gender equality, employment, and food security were themes found in a lower percentage of records than full-text publications for both production types.     

Investigating Cross‐Sectoral Synergies through Integrated Aquaculture,Fisheries, and Agriculture Phosphorus Assessments: A Case Study of Norway

Future phosphorus (P) scarcity and eutrophication risks demonstrate the need for systems‐wide P assessments. Despite the projected drastic increase in world‐wide fish production, P studies have yet to include the aquaculture and fisheries sectors, thus eliminating the possibility of assessing their relative importance and identifying opportunities for recycling. Using Norway as a case, this study presents the results of a current‐status integrated fisheries, aquaculture, and agriculture P flow analysis and identifies current sectoral linkages as well as potential cross‐sectoral synergies where P use can be optimized. A scenario was developed to shed light on how the projected 2050 fivefold Norwegian aquaculture growth will likely affect P demand and secondary P resources. The results indicate that, contrary to most other countries where agriculture dominates, in Norway, aquaculture and agriculture drive P consumption and losses at similar levels and secondary P recycling, both intra‐ and cross‐sectorally, is far from optimized. The scenario results suggest that the projected aquaculture growth will make the Norwegian aquaculture sector approximately 4 times as P intensive as compared to agriculture, in terms of both imported P and losses. This will create not only future environmental challenges, but also opportunities for cross‐sectoral P recycling that could help alleviate the mineral P demands of agriculture. Near‐term policy measures should focus on utilizing domestic fish scrap for animal husbandry and/or fish feed production. Long‐term efforts should focus on improving technology and environmental systems analysis methods to enable P recovery from aquaculture production and manure distribution in animal husbandry.     

Life cycle assessment of aquaculture systems—a review of methodologies

Purpose  

As capture fishery production has reached its limits and global demand for aquatic products is still increasing, aquaculture has become the world’s fastest growing animal production sector. In attempts to evaluate the environmental consequences of this rapid expansion, life cycle assessment (LCA) has become a frequently used method. The present review of current peer-reviewed literature focusing on LCA of aquaculture systems is intended to clarify the methodological choices made, identify possible data gaps, and provide recommendations for future development within this field of research. The results of this review will also serve as a start-up activity of the EU FP7 SEAT (Sustaining Ethical Aquaculture Trade) project, which aims to perform several LCA studies on aquaculture systems in Asia over the next few years.     

A global foresight on food crop needs for livestock

Increasingly more studies are raising concerns about the increasing consumption of meat and the increasing amount of crops (cereals and oilseeds in particular) used to feed animals and that could be used to feed people. The evolution of this amount is very sensitive to human diets and to the productivity of feed. This article provides a 2050 foresight on the necessary increase in crop production for food and feed in three contrasting scenarios: diets with no animal products; current diets in each main region of the world; and the average diet of developed countries extended to the whole world. We develop empirical aggregate production models for seven world regions, using 43 years and 150 countries. These models realistically account for the contribution of feed from food plants (i.e. plants that would be edible for humans) and of grassland to animal products. We find that the amount of edible crops necessary to feed livestock in 2050 is between 8% and 117% of today's need. The latter figure is lower than that in comparable foresight studies because our models take into account empirical features occurring at an aggregate level, such as the increasing share of animal production from regions using less crop product per unit of animal product. In particular, the expected increase in animal production is estimated to occur mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, where the amount of feed from food crops required per unit of animal product proves to be lower than that in other areas. This 117% increase indicates that crop production would have to double if the whole world adopted the present diet of developed countries.     

Removal of Ni(II) from aqueous solution by adsorption onto hazelnut shell activated carbon: equilibrium studies

Carps are the mainstay of Indian aquaculture, contributing over 90% to the total fish production, which was estimated to be 1.77 million metric tonnes in 1996. Carp culture has a great potential for waste utilization and thus for pollution abatement. Many wastes such as cow, poultry, pig, duck, goat, and sheep excreta, biogas slurry, effluents from different kinds of factories/industries have been efficiently used for enhancing the productivity of natural food of carps and related species. Besides, several organic wastes/byproducts such as plant products, wastes from animal husbandry, and industrial by-products have been used as carp feed ingredients to lower the cost of supplementary feeding. However, to ensure the continued expansion of fish ponds and the pollution control, there must be a market for the fish (carps) produced in these ponds. The carps have, however, a low market value due to the presence of intra-muscular bones, which reduces their consumer acceptability. Thus, a need was felt to develop some boneless convenience products for enhancing the consumer acceptability of the carps. Efforts were made to prepare three value-added fish products, namely fish patty, fish finger and fish salad from carp flesh and were compared with a reference product ('fish pakoura'). Sensory evaluation of these products gave highly encouraging results. The methods of preparation of these products were transferred to some progressive farmers of the region who prepared and sold these products at very attractive prices. Carp processing has a great potential for the establishment of a fish ancillary industry and thus for boosting the production of these species. In Punjab alone, there is a potential of consuming 32,448 metric tonnes per annum of such value-added products (which would require 54,080 metric tonnes of raw fish). The development of value-added products has a significant role in raising the socio-economic status of the people associated with carp culture. The average cost of production of these products was estimated to be INR 80 per kg. With a sale price of INR 110 per kg, and a sale of 50 kg per day of the value-added products (26 days a month), the average monthly income of a carp-processing unit comes to be INR 39,000 (929 USD, approximately).     

The global economic costs of substituting dietary protein from fish with meat,grains and legumes,and dairy

This paper estimates the costs to replace fish by protein from meat, from grains and legumes, or from dairy products. We apply the World Trade Model, an input–output model of the interactions among major world regions based on comparative advantage, to analyze alternative scenarios about protein content and sources in global diets. We find that the substitution of fish by meat or dairy entails several trillion U.S. dollars of additional costs annually, corresponding to increased use of pastureland, cropland, water, and other factors of production. The price of animal products increases steeply as higher‐cost producers need to come online, yielding rents to owners of scarce resources. By contrast, the global economy adjusts at significantly lower costs to the substitution of fish by grains and legumes, but this dietary shift involves substantial modification in the mix of agricultural output and its geographic distribution. There have been few analytic studies able to associate costs and prices directly with specific combinations of dietary options. We provide a flexible economic framework for analyzing alternative scenarios about the present and future production of food. The focus on the provision of protein for the human diet, allowing for substitutions between land‐based and aquatic sources, lays the groundwork for subsequent closer examinations of the potential future contribution of aquaculture and, in a yet broader framework, the impact of the coming generation of large dams on fish habitat and freshwater ecosystems more generally.     

Fish is food--the FAO's fish price index

World food prices hit an all-time high in February 2011 and are still almost two and a half times those of 2000. Although three billion people worldwide use seafood as a key source of animal protein, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations-which compiles prices for other major food categories-has not tracked seafood prices. We fill this gap by developing an index of global seafood prices that can help to understand food crises and may assist in averting them. The fish price index (FPI) relies on trade statistics because seafood is heavily traded internationally, exposing non-traded seafood to price competition from imports and exports. Easily updated trade data can thus proxy for domestic seafood prices that are difficult to observe in many regions and costly to update with global coverage. Calculations of the extent of price competition in different countries support the plausibility of reliance on trade data. Overall, the FPI shows less volatility and fewer price spikes than other food price indices including oils, cereals, and dairy. The FPI generally reflects seafood scarcity, but it can also be separated into indices by production technology, fish species, or region. Splitting FPI into capture fisheries and aquaculture suggests increased scarcity of capture fishery resources in recent years, but also growth in aquaculture that is keeping pace with demand. Regionally, seafood price volatility varies, and some prices are negatively correlated. These patterns hint that regional supply shocks are consequential for seafood prices in spite of the high degree of seafood tradability.     

Sewage-fed aquaculture: The Calcutta model

Wastes have been rightly referred to as resources out of place. Since household wastewater often intermixes with effluents from industries and agricultural runoff, multidimensional approaches have been made towards maximizing protein production through rational exploitation of available resources. Sewage-fed aquaculture is a unique system and has manifold advantages in developing tropical countries acting as a major source of nutrients for crop farming and aquaculture, economical for sustainable production and helps to combat environmental pollution. The use of municipal wastewater fed to fertilize ponds began in Calcutta in the 1930s; the city now has perhaps the largest wastewater-fed aquaculture system in the world. A large number of people derive their livelihood from the sewage-fed aquaculture using the principles of systems ecology and applying it through ecological engineering. The subject of sewage-fed aquaculture is reviewed in terms of source, chemical nature, diversity pattern, recycling practices, production potential of aquaculture, environmental issues and safety measures for ecofriendly sustainable environmental management strategies.     

Present status of fisheries in Turkey

Turkey’s natural and ecological situations are very suitable for aquaculture. Turkey also has a wide variety of freshwater and marine species comprising trout, carp, sea bass, sea bream, turbot, mussel, crayfish, etc. The total production of fish and shellfish was 646,310 tons in 2008. The contribution of freshwater catch to total fishery production is relatively small. Capture fisheries production amounted to 494,124 tons whilst aquaculture production was 152,186 tons in the same year. In Turkey, Engraulis encrasicholus (anchovy) is the main caught sea fish species. Fisheries in the Black Sea are the most important fishery by far and show the greatest variations in total catch. Alburnus tarichii (a local species belonging to Cyprinidae) and Cyprinus carpio (the common carp) are the most important species caught from freshwaters. Aquaculture is going to play an increasingly important role in the Turkish economy, as fishery products are the only products of animal origin that can be exported to the EU. There has been a fast increase in the aquaculture production in Turkey with the implementation of scientific and technological modernization. For example, total aquaculture production for 1986 and 2008 was 3,075 and 152,186 tons, respectively. The percentage of aquaculture in total fish production has been rising every year. The ratio of cultured fish production to total fish production was 1.5% in 1990 s, 13.57% in 2000 and more than 20% in 2005. It was 23.55% in 2008. Trouts are the main cultured freshwater fish species. Raceways and floating cages are employed in culture of trout. Carps are also important cultured freshwater fish species. Sea bass and gilthead sea bream are grown marine fish species. Floating cages, off-shore and earthen ponds are used for marine fish species culture. There has been an increase in fishery exports and imports in recent years. It was more than US500 million in 2008, but that of 2004 was just over US 500 million in 2008, but that of 2004 was just over US 233 million. However, aquaculture production is still far away from the production targets and fisheries sector is not an important part of the economy at present.     

When more is more: taking advantage of species diversity to move towards sustainable aquaculture

Human population growth has increased demand for food products, which is expected to double in coming decades. Until recently, this demand has been met by expanding agricultural area and intensifying agrochemical-based monoculture of a few species. However, this development pathway has been criticised due to its negative impacts on the environment and other human activities. Therefore, new production practices are needed to meet human food requirements sustainably in the future. Herein, we assert that polyculture practices can ensure the transition of aquaculture towards sustainable development. We review traditional and recent polyculture practices (ponds, recirculated aquaculture systems, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, aquaponics, integrated agriculture–aquaculture) to highlight how they improve aquaculture through the coexistence and interactions of species. This overview highlights the importance of species compatibility (i.e. species that can live in the same farming environment without detrimental interactions) and complementarity (i.e. complementary use of available resources and/or commensalism/mutualism) to achieve efficient and ethical aquaculture. Overall, polyculture combines aspects of productivity, environmental protection, resource sharing, and animal welfare. However, several challenges must be addressed to facilitate polyculture development across the world. We developed a four-step conceptual framework for designing innovative polyculture systems. This framework highlights the importance of (i) using prospective approaches to consider which species to combine, (ii) performing integrated assessment of rearing environments to determine in which farming system a particular combination of species is the most relevant, (iii) developing new tools and strategies to facilitate polyculture system management, and (iv) implementing polyculture innovation for relevant stakeholders involved in aquaculture transitions.     

“Green water” microalgae: the leading sector in world aquaculture

Freshwater fish culture is generally considered the largest sector in world aquaculture. Several of the leading species consume “green water” plankton. This plankton—mostly microalgae (phytoplankton) and also bacteria, protozoa and zooplankton—grows in man-made fertilized water impoundments. The quantity of “green water” microalgae consumed by fish and shrimp is estimated here at a quarter billion ton fresh weight a year, about three and a half times as much as the entire recognized aquaculture. This estimate is based on the quantities of the microalgae consumed and the efficiencies of their use for growth by the main species in aquaculture. The cost of producing “green water” microalgae by the aquaculturists—mostly in SE Asia—is low. The populations in “green water” are biologically managed by the cultured fish themselves. The fish with their different feeding habits help “manage” the composition of the plankton and the overall water quality as they grow. The aquaculturists further manage “green water” through simple means, including water exchange and fertilization. Cost is remunerated partially by the income from sales of the fish and partially by bio mitigation services that “green water” polyculture ponds provide the aquaculturists in treating farm and household waste. A comprehension of the scale and importance of the microalgae sector to world aquaculture should lead to more research to improve understanding of algal population dynamics, growth factors, and efficiency of food chains. The consequent improved control of the plankton’s interaction with fish and shrimp production in “green water” will undoubtedly contribute much to the expansion in production of seafood.     

Probiotics in aquaculture: importance and future perspectives

Aquaculture is one of the fastest developing growth sectors in the world and Asia presently contributes about 90% to the global production. However, disease outbreaks are constraint to aquaculture production thereby affects both economic development of the country and socio-economic status of the local people in many countries of Asia-Pacifi c region. Disease control in aquaculture industry has been achieved by following different methods using traditional ways, synthetic chemicals and antibiotics. However, the use of such expensive chemotherapeutants for controlling diseases has been widely criticized for their negative impacts like accumulation of residues, development of drug resistance, immunosuppressants and reduced consumer preference for aqua products treated with antibiotics and traditional methods are ineffective against controlling new diseases in large aquaculture systems. Therefore, alternative methods need to be developed to maintain a healthy microbial environment in the aquaculture systems there by to maintain the health of the cultured organisms. Use of probiotics is one of such method that is gaining importance in controlling potential pathogens. This review provides a summary of the criteria for the selection of the potential probiotics, their importance and future perspectives in aquaculture industry.     

Life in the fast lane: Temperature,density and host species impact survival and growth of the fish ectoparasite Argulus foliaceus

With expanding human populations, the food sector has faced constant pressure to sustainably expand and meet global production demands. In aquaculture this frequently manifests in an animal welfare crisis, with fish increasingly farmed under high production, high stress conditions. These intense environments can result in fish stocks having a high susceptibility to infection, with parasites and associated disease one of the main factors limiting industry growth. Prediction of infection dynamics is key to preventative treatment and mitigation. Considering the climatic and technology driven changes facing aquaculture, an understanding of how parasites react across a spectrum of conditions is required. Here we assessed the impact of temperature, infection density and host species on the life history traits of Argulus foliaceus, a common palearctic fish louse, representative of a parasite group problematic in freshwater aquaculture and fisheries worldwide. Temperature significantly affected development, growth and survival; parasites hatched and developed faster at higher temperatures, but also experienced shorter lifespans when maintained off the host. At high temperatures, these parasites will likely experience a short generation time as their life history traits are completed more rapidly. A. foliaceus additionally grew faster on natural hosts and at lower infection densities. Ultimately such results contribute to prediction of population dynamics, aiding development of effective control to improve animal welfare and reduce industry loss.     

The influence of white seabream (Diplodus sargus) production on macrobenthic colonization patterns

The present work evaluates the influence of fish production on macrobenthic colonization over large areas (approximately 700 m²), where the colonizing populations are not nearby the disturbed area. Sampling was undertaken within newly created aquaculture earthen ponds under two contrasting conditions: white seabream (Diplodus sargus) production and no production (control). Macrobenthic and geochemical samples were collected 7, 23, 54, 93 and 180 days after filling the earthen ponds with seawater pumped from a water reservoir for the first time. The water reservoir was also sampled, and is used as a reference for the colonizing populations. Macrobenthic colonization rate in the ponds was low, probably due to the isolation of the disturbed habitat, to the large size of the defaunated area, and possibly to geochemical constraints. Initial colonization was by insect larvae (mainly chironomids), the bivalves Cerastoderma spp., the polychaetes Pseudopolydora paucibranchiata and Hydrodoides elegans, and nemerteneans. The number of species was similar in control and production ponds, even though under production higher total abundance values were observed. Although well represented in the water reservoir, the amphipod Microdeutopus gryllotalpa was only observed within the new ponds after 6 months. Preliminary results suggest that macrobenthic colonization patterns were influenced by fish production, as assemblages were significantly different among ponds. Higher food availability due to fish production may explain the results obtained, but ecological reasons, such as predation, may also contribute for shaping the macrobenthic communities.     

Do trophic subsidies affect the outcome of introductions of a non‐native freshwater fish?

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