Influence of Scion/Rootstock reciprocal effects on post-harvest and metabolomics regulation in stored peaches

Peach is an important stone fruit crop cultivated at commercial scale in Pakistan. While, appropriate selection of rootstock has significant impact on the quality of peach fruit. Therefore, in the current study the influence of three rootstocks viz. ‘GF-677′, ‘Peshawar Local’ and ‘Swat Local’ were evaluated on the quality of ‘Flordaking’ peaches following cold storage during two consecutive years. The fruit from these rootstocks were kept at 0 °C for five weeks were studied for various fruit physical (weight loss, colour, firmness) and biochemical (pH, soluble solids content (SSC), titratable acidity (TA), SSC:TA ratio, fruit juice pH, sugars (total, reducing and non-reducing sugars), ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and free radicals scavenging activities) were evaluated. During both years, fruit harvested form trees grafted on ‘GF-677′ exhibited reduced fruit weight loss, changes in Chroma (C*) and highest fruit firmness, Lightness (L*), ascorbic acid contents and radical scavenging activities as compared to fruit harvested from tree grafted on other rootstocks. In conclusion, the post-harvest quality of scion ‘Flordaking’ peach fruit was significantly influenced and best quality can be obtained when it is grafted on ‘GF-677′ rootstock.     

Responses of reactive oxygen metabolism and quality in mango fruit to exogenous oxalic acid or salicylic acid under chilling temperature stress

After being immersed in water, oxalic acid (OA) or salicylic acid (SA) aqueous solutions, mango ( Mangifera indica L. cv. Zill) fruit were stored at 14°C or at 5°C with shelf life to determine the effects of exogenous OA or SA on reactive oxygen metabolism, quality and chilling injury (CI) of the fruit. Mango CI could be reduced by OA and SA treatments. Compared with that in control, accompanied with alleviated CI at shelf life, fruit treated with OA or SA had significantly higher reduction states of ascorbate and glutathione. Moreover, the treated fruit showed lower superoxide anion content, higher hydrogen peroxide content, lower lipoxygenase (EC 1.13.11.12) activity and higher activities of superoxide dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1), catalase (EC 1.11.1.6), guaiacol peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.7), ascorbate peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.11) and glutathione reductase (EC 1.6.4.2). In addition, fruit firmness, total soluble solids and titratable acidity content were not obviously affected by OA and SA treatments. It was suggested that the effect of OA or SA on mango CI probably attributed to more reducing status of ascorbate and glutathione, less O₂⁻ accumulation and more H₂O₂ accumulation.     

Effect of pre-storage treatments on mango fruit ripening

The effectiveness of pre-storage treatments of nitrogen (low oxygen), heat and ethanol and acetaldehyde vapours were examined for their potential for improving mango storage. Mature green mango fruit (Mangifera indica L. cv. Keitt) were treated with low oxygen (< 3% oxygen, 97% nitrogen) for 72 h, acetaldehyde (0.12%) and ethanol (1%) vapours for 24 h or heat (38 ± 2°C) for 48 h prior to storage at 14°C. The nitrogen and ethanol treatments induced substantial levels of acetaldehyde and ethanol in the fruit. Initially the firmness of the nitrogen treated fruit remained higher than the control although later in storage this effect was lost. Differences in ripening were reflected in the total soluble solids and acidity levels, nitrogen maintaining a higher acidity and lower total soluble solids (less mature) whereas the heat treated fruit had lower acidity and higher total soluble solids (more mature). Ethanol and acetaldehyde treatments showed no effect. The use of a pre-storage treatment of nitrogen therefore had a beneficial effect on retarding ripening, although as storage progressed this effect was lost.     

Grapefruit as a host for the West Indian fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The most common hosts for the West Indian fruit fly, Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart) (Diptera: Tephritidae) are fruit in the family Anacardiaceae (mango [Mangifera L.] and mombin [Spondias L.] species). However, similar to many of the tropical fruit flies of major economic importance, this species attacks several other families of crop fruit, including Annonaceae (cherimoya, Annona cherimola Mill.), Myrtaceae (guava, Psidium L.), Oxalidaceae (carambola, Averrhoa carambola L.), Passifloraceae (granadilla, Passiflora quadrangularis Mill.), and Sapotaceae [mamey sapote, Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H. E. Moore & Steam]. In the family Rutaceae the economically important genus Citrus has been reported and until recently considered a host for this fruit fly. In this study, we reviewed the taxonomy of A. obliqua, tested specific chemicals that may inhibit oviposition, compared egg-to-adult survival of A. obliqua on preferred hosts and on grapefruit (Citrus X paradisi Macfad.), and measured fruit tissue-specific developmental rates of A. obliqua and the known citrus breeding Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae), from egg to pupae. Our literature review shows much confusion concerning the taxonomy of this and related Anastrepha species, including synonymies and confusion with other species. The deterrent effect of the highest concentration of flavonoids for oviposition, although significant, was not absolute. Experiments carried out under laboratory conditions showed 15-40 times greater survival of A. ludens (whose preferred hosts include Rutaceae) on grapefruit compared with A. obliqua for both tree attached and harvested fruit. Experiments of survival of developing stages over time showed that the two species oviposit into different tissues in the fruit, and mortality is much higher for the West Indian fruit fly in the flavedo and albedo of the fruit compared with the Mexican fruit fly.     

皱皮木瓜果实发育后期品质变化及其成熟阶段的划分初探

以湖北长阳产皱皮木瓜为材料,测定果实发育后期果实鲜质量、果长、果径、果色、果实硬度以及果肉干物质量、可溶性糖含量、总酸含量和总黄酮含量等品质指标的动态变化,划分不同成熟阶段,为判断果实适宜采收期、实现优质生产提供理论参考。结果表明:(1)皱皮木瓜果实发育后期果实鲜质量、果长、果径、果肉干物质量和可溶性糖含量均呈现上升趋势;果色由绿色、黄绿色渐变为淡黄色到黄色;果实硬度、果肉总酸和总黄酮含量呈先上升后下降趋势。(2)各品质指标快速变化的时间区域存在差异,果实鲜质量在花后105~150d增加较快,果色在150d后逐渐变黄,果实硬度在花后135~165d快速下降,果肉总酸、总黄酮含量则在花后105~120d快速增加至峰值。(3)根据主成分分析结果和各品质指标的变化特点,可初步将皱皮木瓜果实发育后期划分为未成熟(花后105d之前)、早期成熟(花后120~150d)和成熟(花后165~180d)3个阶段。研究表明,随着果实成熟度的提高,皱皮木瓜果实鲜质量、果色、果肉干物质量、可溶性糖含量等指标不断升高,果实硬度逐渐下降,其食用加工品质不断提升,而在早期成熟阶段(花后120~150d)果实的药用品质则相对较高。     

Improved functional and nutritional properties of tomato fruit during cold storage

The use of synthetic antioxidants has been associated with serious concerns for human and environmental health. During ripening stages, tomato fruit is exposed to different abiotic stresses which not only influence its nutritional, mechanical, and functional properties at harvest, but also affect the quality and shelf life of the fruit during storage. This study investigated the pattern of changes in dietary antioxidants during various ripening stages of tomato fruit (cv. Red Rose) and their impact on storage behavior of the fruit during cold storage. Tomato fruits were harvested at mature green, breaker, turning, pink, light-red and red stages of maturity. Then, they were analysed for flesh firmness, soluble solids content, titratable acidity, total sugars, pH, dry matter content, lipophilic (lycopene, β-carotene, and total carotenoids), and hydrophilic (ascorbic acid, phenolic and flavonoids) antioxidants. Additional fruits were harvested at each maturity stage and divided into three equal lots, then were subjected to low-temperature (10 ± 1 °C) storage with 80 ± 5% RH, for 7, 14, and 21 days. Flesh firmness, and the levels of dietary antioxidants were analysed following the subsequent storage periods. The results revealed that the peak of hydrophilic antioxidants such as ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds, and flavonoids was between the ‘pink’ and the ‘light-red’ stages of fruit maturity. Whereas tomatoes harvested at the ‘red’ stage of maturity had the highest levels of lycopene and β-carotene. Both the stage of fruit maturity at harvest and duration of cold storage influenced flesh firmness, organoleptic and functional properties of ‘Red Rose’ tomato fruit. In conclusion, the results of the current investigation have practical implications in formulating foods with improved functional properties at processing industries.     

Irradiation of mangoes as a postharvest quarantine treatment for fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Mangoes infested with third instar larvae were irradiated using Co-60 gamma rays and a dose interval of 2-250 Gy to assess the irradiation dose required to prevent adult emergence of the Mexican fruit fly (Anastrepha ludens), the West Indies fruit fly (A. obliqua), the sapote fruit fly (A. serpentina), and the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata). Doses of 76.9, 87.3, 91.4 and 112.7 Gy, were estimated to inhibit 99.9968% (probit 9) of adult emergence forA. obliqua, A. serpentina, A. ludens, and C. capitata, respectively. Using mangoes infested with a total of 100,000 larvae of each species, the results obtained in the laboratory were confirmed using a dose of 100 Gy for the Anastrepha species and 150 Gy for C. capitata. No adult emergence was observed for any of the four species compared with approximately 80% emergence in the controls. A dose of 150 Gy is recommended as a generic quarantine treatment against potential infestation of these species in exported mangoes. A minor decrease in the ascorbic acid content was the only adverse effects observed in irradiated mangoes.     

Management of Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) of the Most Perishable Fruits

We investigated to minimize the dependency on the use of chemicals and thus develop safe and environmental friendly control program for the most perishable fruits i.e., apple,‘ber’, guava and mango. Our findings on the composition of fruit fly species reveal that Bactrocera dorsalis was dominant on apple (33.96% existence), Corpomya incompleta on‘ber’(51.91% existence) and Bactrocera zonata on guava (49.62% existence) and mango (74.66% existence). The correlation between population and infestation percentage was non‐significant in apple orchards, whereas positive and highly significant in between population and infestation, as well as on the cumulative basis in‘ber’, guava and mango orchards during 1998‐1999. Hoeing, baiting and methyl eugenol were statistically equal resulting about 77% decrease in infestation. The maximum control of 91.68% was observed where all four‐control operations including Dipterex® were integrated together. Weather factors, when computed together, had maximum effect on population fluctuation and infestation with rainfall contributing the major role. For guava fruits, the months of August (14.06A individuals/trap/day) and September (13.81A individuals/trap/day) were important, resulting in maximum infestation percentage of 10.76 to 14.74%, respectively.     

Modulation of mango ripening by chemicals: physiological and biochemical aspects

During ripening, fleshy fruits undergo textural changes that lead to loss of tissue firmness and consequent softening due to cell wall dismantling carried out by different and specifically expressed enzymes. The effect of various chemical treatments on the ripening of mango fruit (Mangifera indica) was investigated at physiological and biochemical level. Based on changes in respiration, firmness, pH, total soluble sugar and a cell wall degrading enzyme pectate lyase (PEL) activity, treatment with 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), silver nitrate (AgNO₃), gibberlic acid (GA₃), sodium metabisulphite (SMS) and ascorbic acid led to delaying of ripening process while those of ethrel and calcium chloride (CaCl₂) enhanced the process. PEL of mango was found to be inhibited by certain metabolites present in dialysed ammonium sulphate enzyme extract as well as EDTA. Mango PEL activity exhibited an absolute requirement for Ca²⁺ and an optimum pH of 8.5.     

Calcium nitrate delays climacteric of persimmon fruit

Calcium nitrate (20 g litre^?1) delayed persimmon (Diospyros kaki) ripening on the tree and also reduced postharvest fruit deterioration when applied prior to fruit colour break. The magnitude of the response depended on the date of treatment. Application made one month prior to the peak of estimated commercial harvest was the most efficacious, and colour development, fruit softening and ethylene production were significantly retarded by the treatment. At harvest, there was no effect on fruit size or soluble solids content. Although there was a tendency for the content of soluble solids and fruit firmness to decrease with storage period, firmness of treated fruit was maintained.     

Effect of hot water treatment on development of anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) and quality of mango fruit at Jimma southwest Ethiopia

Anthracnose is the major postharvest disease of mango and occurs throughout mango producing areas of the world including Ethiopia. Evaluating effect of hot water treatment on development of anthracnose and quality of mango fruit is imperative. A total of three hot water levels 48, 52 and 56 °C at two time interval (5 and 10 min) were tested with factorial arrangement in completely randomised design. The study indicated that hot water treatment at different temperatures and time interval significantly (p < 0.001) affects disease development and shelf life and postharvest quality of mango fruits. Hot water treatments reduced the incidence and severity of anthracnose disease significantly (p < 0.001) in mango fruits as compared to control. There was a highly significant difference (p < 0.0001) on weight loss, total soluble solids, titratable acidity and fruit firmness of mango fruits due to treatment. The present study reviled that hot water treatment has a potential in reducing the postharvest loss due to anthracnose and improving the shelf life and quality of mango fruits. However, the reduction of disease pressure on fruits was not at applicable level, which call ups future effort on developing on integrated disease management strategies for reduction of postharvest loss of mango fruits.     

Anastrepha ludens and Anastrepha serpentina (Diptera: Tephritidae) do not infest Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae), but Anastrepha obliqua occasionally shares this resource with Anastrepha striata in nature

This study examined whether economically important fruit fly species Anastrepha ludens (Loew), Anastrepha serpentina (Wiedemann), and Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart) (Diptera: Tephritidae) may opportunistically exploit guavas, Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae), growing near preferred natural hosts. We collected 3,459 kg of guavas and 895 kg of other known host species [sour orange, Citrus aurantium L.; grapefruit, Citrus paradisi Macfadyen; mango, Mangifera indica L.; white sapote, Casimiroa edulis La Llave and Lex.; sapote, Pouteria sapota (Jacq.); sapodilla, Manilkara zapota L.; and wild plum, Spondias purpurea L. and Spondias mombin L.] along an altitudinal gradient over a 4-yr period (2006-2009). Plants were growing in sympatry in 23 localities where the guavas are usually infested in the state of Veracruz, M6xico. The guava samples yielded 20,341 Anastrepha spp. pupae in total (overall mean, 5.88 pupae per kg of fruit). Confirming previous reports, Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann) and Anastrepha striata (Schiner) were found heavily infesting guavas in Veracruz. Importantly, although we did not find evidence that A. ludens and A. serpentina are able to attack this valuable commodity, we document for the first time in the agriculturally important state of Veracruz that P. guajava is an alternative natural host plant of A. obliqua. We recovered two fruit in the mango-growing locality of la Vibora, Tlalixcoyan, that harbored larvae of A. striata and A. obliqua. This finding has important practical implications for management of A. obliqua. Over the entire altitudinal gradient, when individual fruit infestation was examined, a dynamic pattern of species dominance was unveiled with guavas growing below 800 m above sea level mainly attacked by A. striata and a progressive replacement with increasing altitude by A. fraterculus. Interestingly, most individual fruit examined (97%) harbored a single species of fruit fly, a finding that may be taken as evidence of competitive displacement among sympatric species of fruit flies. Based on this study and previously published work by us on this topic, we conclude that literature reports indicating that A. ludens and A. serpentina infest guavas under field conditions should be questioned.     

Fruit quality attributes of blackberry (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rubus sanctus</Emphasis>) mutants obtained by <Superscript>60</Superscript>Co gamma irradiation

Blackberry mutants were induced by the irradiation of blackberry shoots with 5 kilo radians of cobalt (⁶⁰Co) gamma irradiation. Seven mutant plants demonstrating improved plant growth properties were selected for evaluation of the fruit quality characteristics, such as size, shape, color, firmness, soluble solids content, juice acidity, nutritive value (e.g. ascorbic acid) and overall fruit flavor. The organoleptic properties, including texture, firmness, flavor, sweetness, acidity, color, and overall fruit flavor, were evaluated by a consumer panel. The results indicated that irradiation induced changes in some of the quality parameters of blackberry fruits, as well as increased the fruit shelf-life.     

Mango seed weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and premature fruit drop in mangoes

The effect of infestations of mango seed weevil, Sternochetus mangiferae (F.), on premature fruit drop of mangoes was investigated. Mango fruits ('Haden') of equal size were collected both off the ground and from the tree at four times during the season (June-August). If weevil-infested fruit were more prone to dropping than uninfested fruit, the prediction was that a higher infestation rate would be found in fruit on the ground compared with fruit on the tree. Average fruit weight was used as an indicator of fruit maturity. The seed infestation rate was significantly higher in fruit collected off the ground compared with fruit collected from the tree in 38 g and 79 g (early-season) fruit but not significantly different in 207 g (midseason) and 281 g (late season) fruit. The age distribution of weevils and the number of insects in infested fruits were similar for ground and tree fruits on all dates. Results suggest that mango seed weevil infestation can increase fruit drop during early fruit development.     

Lack of Involvement of Nutrients in the Latency of Alternaria alternata in Unripe Mango Fruits

The possible relation between changes in mango fruit composition during ripening and the latency of Alternaria alternata infections was investigated. The main increase in total soluble solids and the decrease in acid content in ripening mangofruits occurred during the initial 13 days after harvest, while symptoms of A. alternata appeared only 5 days later. Susceptibility of resistant peeled mango fruits flesh could not be increased by infiltration with sucrose, at a concentration that sustains maximal growth in vitro.     

Salicylic Acid Induces Changes in Mango Fruit that Affect Oviposition Behavior and Development of the Oriental Fruit Fly,Bactrocera dorsalis

The Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) is an important quarantine pest around the globe. Although measures for its control are implemented worldwide through IPM and male annihilation, there is little effect on their population. Hence, there is a need for new strategies to control this minacious pest. A strategy that has received negligible attention is the induction of ‘natural plant defenses’ by phytohormones. In this study, we investigated the effect of salicylic acid (SA) treatment of mango fruit (cv. Totapuri) on oviposition and larval development of B. dorsalis. In oviposition choice assays, gravid females laid significantly less eggs in SA treated compared to untreated fruit. Headspace volatiles collected from SA treated fruit were less attractive to gravid females compared to volatiles from untreated fruit. GC-MS analysis of the headspace volatiles from SA treated and untreated fruit showed noticeable changes in their chemical compositions. Cis-ocimene and 3-carene (attractants to B. dorsalis) were reduced in the headspace volatiles of treated fruit. Further, reduced pupae formation and adult emergence was observed in treated fruit compared to control. Increased phenol and flavonoid content was recorded in treated fruit. We also observed differential expression of anti-oxidative enzymes namely catalase (CAT), polyphenoloxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD). In summary, the results indicate that SA treatment reduced oviposition, larval development and adult emergence of B. dorsalis and suggest a role of SA in enhancing mango tolerance to B. dorsalis.     

Is a mango just a mango? Testing within-fruit oviposition site choice and larval performance of a highly polyphagous fruit fly

For fruit flies, fully ripe fruit is preferred for adult oviposition and is superior for offspring performance over unripe or ripening fruit. Because not all parts of a single fruit ripen simultaneously, the opportunity exists for adult fruit flies to selectively choose riper parts of a fruit for oviposition and such selection, if it occurs, could positively influence offspring performance. Such fine scale host variation is rarely considered in fruit fly ecology, however, especially for polyphagous species which are, by definition, considered to be generalist host users. Here we study the adult oviposition preference/larval performance relationship of the Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae), a highly polyphagous pest species, at the “within-fruit” level to see if such a host use pattern occurs. We recorded the number of oviposition attempts that female flies made into three fruit portions (top, middle and bottom), and larval behavior and development within different fruit portions for ripening (color change) and fully-ripe mango, Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae). Results indicate that female B. dorsalis do not oviposit uniformly across a mango fruit, but lay most often in the top (i.e., stalk end) of fruit and least in the bottom portion, regardless of ripening stage. There was no evidence of larval feeding site preference or performance (development time, pupal weight, percent pupation) being influenced by fruit portion, within or across the fruit ripening stages. There was, however, a very significant effect on adult emergence rate from pupae, with adult emergence rate from pupae from the bottom of ripening mango being approximately only 50% of the adult emergence rate from the top of ripening fruit, or from both the top and bottom of fully-ripe fruit. Differences in mechanical (firmness) and chemical (total soluble solids, titratable acidity, total non-structural carbohydrates) traits between different fruit portions were correlated with adult fruit utilisation. Our results support a positive adult preference/offspring performance relationship at within-fruit level for B. dorsalis. The fine level of host discrimination exhibited by B. dorsalis is at odds with the general perception that, as a polyphagous herbivore, the fly should show very little discrimination in its host use behavior.     

采前喷施草酸对芒果果实细胞钙含量和分布的影响

利用焦锑酸钾沉淀-透射电子显微镜观察的方法, 观测了采前喷施草酸或钙后采收期芒果(Mangifera indica)果实细胞钙含量和分布情况, 探讨钙含量和分布变化对果实成熟和衰老的影响。结果表明, 与对照相比, 采前经草酸或钙处理的果实果皮和果肉细胞排列较规则且致密, 淀粉粒分布较多。采前草酸或钙处理均能显著提高芒果果皮和外果肉组织的钙含量;疏松结合态钙均匀分布在果皮和果肉细胞的细胞壁、细胞膜、液泡膜和质体中, 并在液泡内堆积; 而对照果实的液泡膜模糊, 钙颗粒较少。实验证明采前喷施草酸或钙能维持果实细胞的形态, 提高果实细胞的钙含量, 影响钙的分布, 有利于保持果实的硬度并可增加果实营养。     

脐橙果实贮藏过程中主要有机物质含量的变化

对朋那脐橙、纽荷尔脐橙和红肉脐橙果实采后室温贮藏过程中主要有机物质含量进行分析,结果表明,贮藏期间,果实可溶性固形物含量10d前略有上升,10d后的变化各品种间有差异;可滴定酸含量显著下降;固酸比显著上升;维生素C含量变化趋势因品种而异;可溶性蛋白质含量在贮藏过程中呈上升趋势。上述各指标在贮藏各时期不同品种间有明显差异。     

Nonhost status of commercial Persea americana 'Hass' to Anastrepha ludens, Anastrepha obliqua, Anastrepha serpentina, and Anastrepha striata (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Mexico

The objective of this study was to determine the host status in Mexico of commercially cultivated and marketed avocado, Persea americana (Mill.), 'Hass' to Anastrepha ludens (Loew), Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart), Anastrepha serpentina (Wiedemann), and Anastrepha striata (Schiner) (Diptera: Tephritidae). Experiments in Michoacán, Mexico, were carried out in six orchards located at three altitudes above sea level during two times (August-October 2001 and April-June 2002). They included choice ('Hass' avocado plus natural host) and no-choice foraging behavior tests on trees under field cages; no-choice, forced infestation trials on caged, fruit-bearing branches in the field, and with individual fruit under laboratory conditions; infestation trials using 'Hass' avocados left unprotected over 1 and 7 d on the ground of orchards; studies to ascertain depth of oviposition and determine egg hatchability; and experiments to determine susceptibility by using time elapsed since removal of fruit from tree as the experimental variable. We trapped adult Anastrepha (n = 7,936) in all orchards and dissected fruit (n = 7,695) from orchards and packing houses (n = 1,620) in search of eggs or larvae. Most (96.7%) A. ludens, A. obliqua, A. striata, and A. serpentina adults were captured in low-elevation orchards. No eggs or larvae were detected in any of the fruit from foraging behavior studies or dissected fruit from orchards or packing houses. Of 5,200 mature, intact fruit on trees in the field forcibly exposed to no-choice female oviposition activity (five females/fruit), we only found four fruit infested by A. ludens but no adults emerged. 'Hass' avocados only became marginally susceptible to attack by A. ludens (but not A. obliqua, A. serpentina, and A. striata) 24 h after being removed from the tree. Fruit placed on the ground in orchards (n = 3,600) were occasionally infested by Neosilba batesi (Curran) (Diptera: Lonchaeidae), a decomposer, but not Anastrepha spp. Based on our results, commercially cultivated and marketed P. americana 'Hass' should not be considered a natural host of A. ludens, A. obliqua, A. striata, and A. serpentina in Mexico.