Is fungal species richness and composition related to the occurrence of the old‐growth associated wood‐decaying Amylocystis lapponica?

Amylocystis lapponica (Romell) Singer is a widely distributed wood‐decaying polypore fungus found throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Despite its huge distribution range it occurs rather patchily and seems narrowly associated with old‐growth forest stands. Notably, it has been used as an ‘indicator species’, believed to reflect the long‐term presence of dead wood, naturalness of forest stands, and indirectly, species richness and possibly composition. In this study we focused on the last issue – whether or not there is a link between the occurrence of A. lapponica and the species richness and composition of other wood‐decaying fungi. Selecting log characteristics and microclimate as similar as possible, we compared 12 logs with and 12 logs without visible fruit bodies of A. lapponica to examine: 1) if visible fruit bodies corresponded with molecular identification of the mycelia, 2) if fungal species richness and composition of the substrate were related to A. lapponica occurrence, and 3) if A. lapponica was restricted to certain parts of the log. Fungal species were recorded by inspecting visible fruit bodies and by culture isolation and ITS sequencing from wood disc samples. Laboratory and field identification of A. lapponica had 71% correspondence, and mycelia were identified in two logs without visible fruit bodies. Twice as many fungal species were detected using ITS sequencing compared to fruit body identification. Total species richness was similar between the two log categories, but number of species per log was slightly higher in A. lapponica logs. Antrodia serialis (Fr.) Donk, and possibly also Fomitopsis pinicola (Sw.:Fr.) P. Karst. and Phellinus nigrolimitatus (Romell) Bourdot & Galzin, occurred more frequently in A. lapponica logs. Mycelia of A. lapponica were restricted to less decayed parts of the wood in the centre of the middle part of the logs.     

Structure of insect communities inhabiting old‐growth forest specialist bracket fungi

1. This paper describes the structure of the insect communities inhabiting two old‐growth forest specialist bracket fungi, Amylocystis lapponica and Fomitopsis rosea. To study the consequences of old‐growth forest fragmentation on community structure, non‐fragmented and fragmented forest areas in eastern and southern Finland were compared. 2. Both fungal species are inhabited by more than 50 insect species. The most abundant species in the A. lapponica community is a melandryid beetle Hallomenus sp., and in the F. rosea community a tineid moth Agnathosia mendicella. The occurrence of several nationally or globally rare species underscores the importance of specific insect microhabitats, such as the specialist fungi A. lapponica and F. rosea, for the persistence of specialised insects in old‐growth forests. 3. The species composition in both fungal species differs greatly from each other. The food webs are characterised by one numerically dominant host‐specific primary fungivore, which implies that fungivorous species inhabiting bracket fungi may be more specialised on a particular host than is generally thought. 4. The community structure was the same in the highly fragmented and in the non‐fragmented study areas, probably because fragmentation has occurred relatively recently.     

Avoidance of willows from moderately polluted area by leaf beetle,Melasoma lapponica: effects of emission or induced resistance?

We studied preference for willows along a pollution gradient on the Kola Peninsula, Russia, by the leaf beetle, Melasoma lapponica. Multiple tests with leaf disks demonstrated low preference for Salix borealis, S. caprea and S. phylicifolia from the plot situated 14 km from the smelter, in comparison with conspecific plants from plots situated at 1 and 29 km distances. This pattern was observed when testing beetles orginating from any plot both in 1993 and 1994, using both young and mature leaves of S. borealis. Although fumigation of S. borealis with realistic SO₂ concentration (100 g/m³) increased plant palatability, preference for plants from our study plots did not correlate with plot-specific mean SO₂ concentrations. Furthermore, no correlation with foliar concentrations of the main metal pollutants (Ni and Cu) was found. Palatability of plants was negatively correlated with population density of M. lapponica, which peaked in the moderately polluted plot 14 km from the smelter. Within this plot, beetles clearly preferred non-damaged bushes of S. borealis to previously damaged bushes. We therefore conclude that low preference of S. borealis from the moderately polluted area was caused by plant resistance induced by severe damage from M. lapponica in previous years rather than by pollution impact. However, S. caprea and S. phylicifolia had little damage from M. lapponica, and low palatability of these species in the moderately polluted plot suggests changes in plant quality similar to changes in heavily damaged bushes of S. borealis.     

Industrial pollution affects behaviour of the leafmining moth Stigmella lapponica

We explored the impacts of industrial air pollution on the behaviour of the leafmining moth Stigmella lapponica (Wocke) (Lepidoptera: Nepticulidae) by comparing the characteristics of larval gallery mines in mountain birch [Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii (Orlova) Hämet‐Ahti (Betulaceae)] leaves collected from unpolluted forests and from heavily polluted industrial barrens surrounding the copper‐nickel smelter in Monchegorsk in north‐western Russia. Population density of S. lapponica, survival of larvae, length of the completed mine, and width of its terminal part did not differ between polluted and unpolluted sites. Females in unpolluted sites only rarely (16%) oviposited on the apical half of the leaf and the larval mortality in mines that started in the apical part of the leaf was 83%. A significantly larger (38%) proportion of mines started in the apical half of the leaves in polluted sites, and the larval mortality in these mines was only 45%. The between‐habitat difference in the choice of the oviposition sites by S. lapponica is the first demonstration of the adaptive plasticity of oviposition behaviour in a leafmining insect. This difference was not explained by specific leaf weight which did not vary within leaves. Larvae mining in polluted leaves extended 25% farther between turns, and the galleries turned more sharply than in unpolluted leaves. This result confirms the abilities of leafmining larvae to evaluate the quality of the ingested food and adjust their behaviour accordingly. Thus, pollution modifies both the preference of S. lapponica females for oviposition sites within a birch leaf and the behaviour of S. lapponica larvae mining these leaves. This is one of the first records of changes in insect behaviour in natural environment disturbed by industrial pollution.     

Drivers of host plant shifts in the leaf beetle Chrysomela lapponica: natural enemies or competition?

1. The leaf beetle, Chrysomela lapponica, originally uses the salicyl glucosides (SGs) of its host plants to sequester salicylaldehyde, which serves as a defence against generalist enemies but attracts specialist enemies. However, some populations of C. lapponica have shifted to SG‐poor hosts, and their secretions do not contain salicylaldehyde. 2. In was suggested that beetles shift to SG‐poor hosts to escape from specialist enemies. To test this hypothesis, we compared field mortality between two populations of C. lapponica that were associated with SG‐rich willow, Salix myrsinifolia (Kola Peninsula and Finland) and two populations that fed on SG‐poor willows, S. glauca (Ural) and S. caprea (Belarus). 3. Mortality from generalist enemies was significantly higher in Belarus than in three other populations, whereas mortality from specialists did not differ among populations. A specialist predator (syrphid fly larvae, Parasyrphus nigritarsis) and specialist parasitoids (phorid flies, Megaselia spp.) were attracted to the secretions of larvae reared on both SG‐rich and SG‐poor hosts. 4. Feeding on leaves of S. caprea and S. myrsinifolia both previously damaged by leaf puncturing and by the larvae of potentially competing species Chrysomela vigintipunctata, decreased the weight and prolonged the development of C. lapponica. 5. Thus, populations of C. lapponica that have shifted to SG‐poor willow species did not obtain enemy‐free space because specialist enemies have developed adaptations to herbivores that switched to a novel host plant. We suggest that in some populations host plant shift was favoured by interspecific competition with the early season SG‐using specialist, C. vigintipunctata.     

A subset of chemosensory genes differs between two populations of a specialized leaf beetle after host plant shift

Due to its fundamental role in shaping host selection behavior, we have analyzed the chemosensory repertoire of Chrysomela lapponica. This specialized leaf beetle evolved distinct populations which shifted from the ancestral host plant, willow (Salix sp., Salicaceae), to birch (Betula rotundifolia, Betulaceae). We identified 114 chemosensory candidate genes in adult C. lapponica: 41 olfactory receptors (ORs), eight gustatory receptors, 17 ionotropic receptors, four sensory neuron membrane proteins, 32 odorant binding proteins (OBPs), and 12 chemosensory proteins (CSP) by RNA‐seq. Differential expression analyses in the antennae revealed significant upregulation of one minus‐C OBP (ClapOBP27) and one CSP (ClapCSP12) in the willow feeders. In contrast, one OR (ClapOR17), four minus‐C OBPs (ClapOBP02, 07, 13, 20), and one plus‐C OBP (ClapOBP32) were significantly upregulated in birch feeders. The differential expression pattern in the legs was more complex. To narrow down putative ligands acting as cues for host discrimination, the relative abundance and diversity of volatiles of the two host plant species were analyzed. In addition to salicylaldehyde (willow‐specific), both plant species differed mainly in their emission rate of terpenoids such as (E,E)‐α‐farnesene (high in willow) or 4,8‐dimethylnona‐1,3,7‐triene (high in birch). Qualitatively, the volatiles were similar between willow and birch leaves constituting an “olfactory bridge” for the beetles. Subsequent structural modeling of the three most differentially expressed OBPs and docking studies using 22 host volatiles indicated that ligands bind with varying affinity. We suggest that the evolution of particularly minus‐C OBPs and ORs in C. lapponica facilitated its host plant shift via chemosensation of the phytochemicals from birch as novel host plant.     

Poleward increase in feeding efficiency of leafminer Stigmella lapponica (Lepidoptera: Nepticulidae) in a latitudinal gradient crossing a boreal forest zone

Damage to plant communities imposed by insect herbivores generally decreases from low to high latitudes. This decrease is routinely attributed to declines in herbivore abundance and/or diversity, whereas latitudinal changes in per capita food consumption remain virtually unknown. Here, we tested the hypothesis that the lifetime food consumption by a herbivore individual decreases from low to high latitudes due to a temperature-driven decrease in metabolic expenses. From 2016 to 2019, we explored latitudinal changes in multiple characteristics of linear (gallery) mines made by larvae of the pygmy moth, Stigmella lapponica, in leaves of downy birch, Betula pubescens. The mined leaves were larger than intact leaves at the southern end of our latitudinal gradient (at 60°N) but smaller than intact leaves at its northern end (at 69°N), suggesting that female oviposition preference changes with latitude. No latitudinal changes were observed in larval size, mine length or area, and in per capita food consumption, but the larval feeding efficiency (quantified as the ratio between larval size and mine size) increased with latitude. Consequently, S. lapponica larvae consumed less foliar biomass at higher latitudes than at lower latitudes to reach the same size. Based on space-for-time substitution, we suggest that climate warming will increase metabolic expenses of insect herbivores with uncertain consequences for plant–herbivore interactions.     

Decrease in feeding niche breadth of Melasoma lapponica (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) with increase in pollution

We studied host-plant preference and performance of the leaf beetle, Melasoma lapponica, around Severonikel smelter situated in Monchegorsk, Russia. The breadth of feeding niche (Smith's measure) based on both field counts and preference tests decreased with an increase of ambient SO₂ concentration, but showed no relationship with either metal pollutants or beetle population densities. In heavily polluted plots (mean annual SO₂ concentrations 400–1000 g/m³) the beetles concentrated on Salix borealis, Whereas in moderately and slightly polluted plots they used other willow species as well. No difference in survival was revealed between M. lapponica fed with leaves of S. borealis from heavily and sloghtly polluted plots. However, performance of larvae fed with Salix caprea and S. Phylicifolia was significantly lower when leaves were collected from heavily polluted plots. In these plots beetles clearly preferred S. borealis, the only species assuring high survival of M. lapponica under strong pollution impact. Decrease in preference of two less favourable hosts, S. caprea and S. phylicifolia, with increase in pollution can therefore be considered as an adaptive response of M. lapponica to pollution-induced changes in host-plant quality.     

Systematics and conservation genetics of Dactylorhiza majalis ssp. elatior (Orchidaceae) on Gotland

A tall allotetraploid member of the Dactylorhiza incarnata/maculata complex with unspotted leaves and large pinkish flowers from the island of Gotland in the Baltic was examined for molecular variation patterns at five nuclear microsatellite loci, nuclear ITS and in plastid haplotypes. The allotetraploid was well separated from allopatric allotetraploids of similar appearance, including the western European D. majalis ssp. integrata (syn. D. praetermissa) and forms of D. majalis ssp. lapponica from mainland Sweden. It also differed from other allotetraploids distributed in the Baltic Sea region, including D. majalis ssp. baltica and D. majalis ssp. lapponica. It is here recognized as D. majalis ssp. elatior (Fr.) Hedrén & H. A. Pedersen. Dactylorhiza osiliensis Pikner, described from Saaremaa (Estonia) is regarded as a synonym. The distribution covers Gotland, Saaremaa and possibly Hiiumaa. Dactylorhiza majalis ssp. elatior may have one or several recent origins within its present distribution area, and it contains no other molecular markers than those found in the parental D. incarnata var. incarnata and D. maculata ssp. fuchsii in the same area. It appears to have weak barriers towards secondary hybridization with its parental lineages. The situation is reminiscent to that of other young allotetraploids in the D. majalis s.l. complex, suggesting that introgression may be an underestimated process explaining the accumulation of genetic diversity in evolving allopolyploid plants.     

Sex‐specific winter distribution in a sexually dimorphic shorebird is explained by resource partitioning

Sexual size dimorphism (SSD) implies correlated differences in energetic requirements and feeding opportunities, such that sexes will face different trade‐offs in habitat selection. In seasonal migrants, this could result in a differential spatial distribution across the wintering range. To identify the ecological causes of sexual spatial segregation, we studied a sexually dimorphic shorebird, the bar‐tailed godwit Limosa lapponica, in which females have a larger body and a longer bill than males. With respect to the trade‐offs that these migratory shorebirds experience in their choice of wintering area, northern and colder wintering sites have the benefit of being closer to the Arctic breeding grounds. According to Bergmann's rule, the larger females should incur lower energetic costs per unit of body mass over males, helping them to winter in the cold. However, as the sexes have rather different bill lengths, differences in sex‐specific wintering sites could also be due to the vertical distribution of their buried prey, that is, resource partitioning. Here, in a comparison between six main intertidal wintering areas across the entire winter range of the lapponica subspecies in northwest Europe, we show that the percentage of females between sites was not correlated with the cost of wintering, but was positively correlated with the biomass in the bottom layer and negatively with the biomass in the top layer. We conclude that resource partitioning, rather than relative expenditure advantages, best explains the differential spatial distribution of male and female bar‐tailed godwits across northwest Europe.     

Genetic differentiation among European samples of the arctic‐alpine leaf beetle,Chrysomela lapponica

Genetic differentiation within and among isolated populations of the arctic‐alpine leaf beetle, Chrysomela lapponica L. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), specialized on either Salix L. (Salicaceae) or Betula L. (Betulaceae) species, was assessed by F‐statistics analysis at seven allozyme loci. Beetles were collected on Salix spp. in lowland Finland (four samples), at mid elevation in the Black Forest in Germany (450 m) and the Massif Central in France (two samples, 930–1 300 m), and at high elevation in the French Alps (2 300 m). Beetles sampled in the Czech Republic (650 m) fed on Betula pubescens Ehrh. Larvae feeding on Salix spp. secreted host‐derived salicylaldehyde as major toxin; those feeding on B. pubescens secreted isobutyrates and 2‐methylbutyrates of mixed plant–insect origin. In all samples, a heterozygote deficit was observed (0.120<F_IS<0.568), in particular in populations collected at mid or high elevation (F_IS>0.4). The estimated mean level of genetic differentiation among all populations was high (F_ST = 0.276). Differentiation was highly variable between pairs of populations (F_ST = 0.093–0.455, all significant) without any correlation with geographic distance. The sample collected in the Czech Republic, from the only population on B. pubescens, was not the most divergent.     

The significance of bottom-up effects for host plant specialization in Chrysomela leaf beetles

The leaf beetle species Chrysomela lapponica, which belongs to the so‐called C. interrupta group, forms distinct allopatric populations either on willows (Salicaceae) or birches (Betulaceae). It was recently suggested that, on several occasions, host plant shifts from Salicaceae to Betulaceae occurred independently within the C. interrupta group. Our study aims to elucidate bottom‐up effects of the host plants that might have shaped the evolution of host plant specialization in the populations of C. lapponica, and thus, to shed some light on the driving forces of host shifts within the C. interrupta group, too. We compared the oviposition behaviour and performance of two C. lapponica populations, one of which has adapted to birches and the other to willows. The studies were conducted under laboratory conditions, eliminating the impact of natural enemies. Experiments involving the transfer of individuals of the birch‐specialized population to willows and vice versa with individuals of the willow‐specialized population to birches aimed to examine the plasticity in host plant use. Females of each population almost exclusively chose their natural host plant for oviposition, when offering birch and willow in dual choice experiments. When specimens of the two C. lapponica populations were reared on their natural host plants, the birch specialists suffered higher mortality, needed a longer period of development and produced less larval defensive secretion than the willow specialists. When the birch specialists were fed with willow, these performance parameters decreased even more. Other parameters, such as body weight and fecundity, did not differ between birch and willow specialists when they were fed with their natural host plant. While individuals of the birch‐specialized population could be reared on willow, all neonate larvae from the willow‐specialized population died after being transferred to birch. The significance of these bottom‐up effects for the evolution of host plant specialization in C. lapponica is discussed.     

Profilicollis novaezelandensis n. sp. (Polymorphidae) and two other acanthocephalan parasites from shore birds (Haematopodidae and Scolopacidae) in New Zealand,with records of two species in intertidal crabs (Decapoda: Grapsidae and Ocypodidae)

Profilicollis novaezelandensis n. sp. (Acanthocephala: Polymorphidae) is described from the South Island pied oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus finschi Martens (Haematopodidae) and the intertidal crab Hemigrapsus crenulatus (Milne Edwards) (Brachyura: Grapsidae) from the South Island of New Zealand. The new species can be distinguished from all the other species of the genus by a combination of the following characters: long neck (13% of total body length for adults) and a subspherical proboscis with 14–16 longitudinal rows of 7–8 hooks. The mud crabs Helice crassa Dana (Grapsidae) and Macrophthalmus hirtipes (Heller) (Ocypodidae) were also harbouring cystacanths and the bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica (Linnaeus) (Scolopacidae) juveniles of P. novaezelandensis. This is the first record of brachyuran decapods as intermediate hosts of Acanthocephala from New Zealand. P. antarcticus is recorded from three crab species (Helice crassa, Hemigraspus crenulatus and Macrophthalmus hirtipes) and two bird species (Haematopus o. finschi and Limosa lapponica) in New Zealand. An unidentified species of Plagiorhynchus was also found in two bird species (H. o. finschi and H. unicolor Forster). P. antarcticus and P. novaezelandensis are the first records of Profilicollis from New Zealand.     

Effect of industrial air pollution on wild plant seed germination and seedling growth

Germination of the following wild plant seeds was studied: bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), cowberry (V. vitis-idaea L.), bog bilberry (V. uliginosum L.), black crowberry (Empetrum hermaphroditum Hagerup), bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.), bunchberry (Chamaepericlymenum suecicum (L.) Aschers. et Graebn.), cottongrass (Eriophorum polystachion L.), goldenrod (Solidago lapponica With.), fireweed (Chamaenerion angustifolium (L.) Scop.), marsh cinquefoil (Comarum palustre L.), cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus L.), and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The seeds were collected at different distances from the source of industrial air pollution (Severonickel smelter complex, Murmansk region). The task was the assessment of potential possibility of restoring corrupted north forest plant communities via seed propagation. By the response of reproductive structures to stressor, investigated species were divided into 3 groups: tolerant (members of the genus Vaccinium and Ch. angustifolium); moderately tolerant (C. palustre, E. polystachion, A. uva-ursi, and R. chamaemorus); and sensitive (P. sylvestris, E. hermaphroditum, and S. lapponica). Laboratory seed germinability of Vaccinium species was high (> 90%) regardless of the levels of Ni and Cu accumulation in the seeds and the index of technogenic load, whereas this index in E. hermaphroditum and P. sylvestris seeds was significantly reduced with the increase in the heavy metal contents in the seeds. The greenhouse experiments with the seeds of three Vaccinium species collected in the background area and in the zone of the highest pollution and germinated on the forest litter from the same sites and observation for seedling development allow us to conclude that a potential possibility of these species to seed propagation are not limited by their seed viability even under conditions of the highest technogenic load. In sites of environment pollution, the high metal content in the upper soil layer is the main factor limiting plant seed propagation.     

Evolution,phylogeography and taxonomy of allopolyploid Dactylorhiza (Orchidaceae) and its implications for conservation

This review is based on recent molecular studies of Dactylorhiza (Orchidaceae). Most of the studies have focused on the allotetraploid members of the genus in general and on D. majalis ssp. lapponica in particular. It was concluded that most of the allotetraploid taxa have derived from hybridizations between the parental lineages D. maculata s.l. and D. incarnata s.l., with D. maculata s.l. serving as the seed parent. Evidence of multiple origins was found both among northern European allotetraploids as well as among Greek allotetraploids. Introgression from both parental lineages and hybridizations between independently derived polyploid lineages was also detected. The three morphologically similar taxa D. majalis ssp. traunsteineri, ssp. lapponica and ssp. russowii should be treated as one and most of the Greek allotetraploids should be regarded as regional variants of the southeastern European D. majalis ssp. cordigera. The Balkans and the Alps most probably served as refugia for the genus during the last glaciations and at least two waves of immigration reached Scandinavia. Finally, we suggest that the conservation of allotetraploid Dactylorhiza should emphasize important geographic areas and habitats and that the allopolyploids should have the same conservation status as the diploids.     

Mechanism of isoproturon resistance in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phalaris minor:</Emphasis> in silico design,synthesis and testing of some novel herbicides for regaining sensitivity

Isoproturon, 3-p-cumenyl-1 dimethylurea was the only herbicide controlling Phalaris minor, a major weed growing in wheat fields till the early 1980s. Since it has acquired resistance against isoproturon, like other substituted urea herbicides, where the identified target site for isoproturon is in the photosynthetic apparatus at D1 protein of Photosystem-II (PS-II). Nucleotide sequence of susceptible and resistant psbA gene of P. minor has been reported to have four point mutations. During the present work D1 protein of both susceptible and resistant biotypes of P Minor has been modeled. Transmembrane segments of amino acids were predicted by comparing with the nearest homolog of bacterial D1 protein. Volume and area of active site of both susceptible and resistant biotypes has been simulated. Isoproturon was docked at the active site of both, susceptible and resistant D1 proteins. Modeling and simulation of resistance D1 protein indicates that the resistance is due to alteration in secondary structure near the binding site, resulting in loss in cavity area, volume and change in binding position, loss of hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interaction and complete loss of hydrophobic sites. To regain sensitivity in resistant biotype new derivatives of isoproturon molecules have been proposed, synthesized and tested. Among the 17 derivatives we found that the N-methyl triazole substituted isoproturon is a potential substitute for isoproturon.     

The complete mitochondrial genome sequences of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chelodina rugosa</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chelus fimbriata</Emphasis> (Pleurodira: Chelidae): implications of a common absence of initiation sites (O<Subscript>L</Subscript>) in pleurodiran turtles

Within the order Testudines, while phylogenetic analyses have been performed on the suborder Cryptodira with complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes), mitogenomic information from another important suborder Pleurodira has been inadequate. In the present study, complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of two chelid turtles Chelodina rugosa and Chelus fimbriata were firstly determined, the lengths of which were 16,582 and 16,661 bp respectively. As the typical vertebrate mitogenome, both mtDNAs consist of 13 protein coding genes, 2 ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), 22 transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and a long noncoding region (control region, CR). However, the initiation sites for light-strand replication (O_L), which has been identified in all reported Cryptodire mitogenomes, were not found in the putative position of the two chelid turtles and African helmeted turtle Pelomedusa subrufa. The results suggested that the absence of mitogenomic initiation sites (O_L) could be a characteristic of Pleurodira. Phylogenetic relationships of chelid turtles and other turtles were reconstructed using the reported mitogenomes. Both maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) analyses suggested the monophyly of Pleurodira and Cryptodira as well as a sister group relationship between the two chelid turtles with strong statistical support. This phylogenetic framework was also utilized to estimate divergence dates among lineages using relaxed-clock methods combined with fossil evidence. Divergence estimates revealed that genus Chelodina diverged from genus Chelus in Late Cretaceous (~83 million years ago (mya)), and the time is consistent with the vicariance of the fragments which was caused by Gondwana split.     

Comparative developmental and reproductive biology of geographical populations from two cryptic species in Brontispa longissima (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Brontispa longissima is a serious pest of the coconut palm Cocos nucifera, presumed to have originated in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. It recently invaded Southeast and East Asia, where outbreaks have been reported. Mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals two cryptic species in B. longissima: one is distributed over a wide area including Asia and the Pacific region (the Asian clade) and the other in a limited area in the Pacific region (the Pacific clade). Recent invasions and outbreaks have been reported only from the area where the Asian clade has been found, suggesting that this clade has become a pest in Asia. To infer if the Asian clade has the ability to establish, spread and outbreak in novel habitats more effectively than the Pacific clade, we compared life‐history traits between the two populations of different clades. The net reproduction rate (R₀) was 130.0 and 94.0, the mean length of a generation (T) was 57.7 and 54.7 days, and the intrinsic rate of natural increase (r) was 0.084 and 0.083 per day for the population from Ishigaki Island, Japan (ISH) (the Asian clade) and for the population from Papua New Guinea (PNG) (the Pacific clade), respectively. Although the difference in r was little, the simulated population growth showed that the ISH population can be 1.6 times larger than that of the PNG after ten generations. The rapid population growth of the Asian clade would be partly responsible for its establishment, spread and frequent outbreaks in Asia.     

Ecological niche of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptococcus neoformans</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">grubii</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptococcus gattii</Emphasis> in decaying wood of trunk hollows of living trees in Jabalpur City of Central India

Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii and C. gattii were repeatedly isolated from decaying wood of trunk hollows in living trees growing in Jabalpur City in Central India. The isolation of C.␣gattii has been reported from decayed wood inside trunk hollow of Tamarindus indica (15.6%), Mangifera indica (2.2%), Pithecolobium dulce (12.5%), Syzygium cumini (14%), and one from bark of S.␣cumini. C. n. var. grubii was isolated from decaying wood debris of T. indica (4.4%), M. indica (13.3%), Terminalia arjuna (25%), S. cumini (2%), Cassia fistula (4.5%), and two from bark of S. cumini. The two varieties never co-occurred in the same hollow. C. gattii and C. n. var. grubii isolates belonged to serotype B and serotype A respectively. The data strongly supported the colonization of the pathogen in␣decaying wood hollow of all six-tree species. Evidence of this was found by repeated isolation up to 820 days. P. dulce is being reported for the first time as natural habitat of C. gattii and T.␣arjuna and C. fistula as natural habitat for C. n. var. grubii. M. indica is being reported for the second time as the natural habitat of both varieties (C. n. var. grubii and C. gattii). The population density of these pathogens from decaying wood debris of various tree species ranged between 0.5 × 10³ cells/g and 6 × 10⁵ cells/g. The seasonal variation has been seen in isolation of this yeast. Our result further reinforce the recently emerging evidence that the natural habitat of C. n. var. grubii and C. gattii is more generalized.