Oxidation of deuteroferrihaem by hydrogen peroxide

1. The oxidation of deuteroferrihaem by H(2)O(2) to bile pigment and CO was studied both by stopped-flow kinetic spectrophotometry and mass spectrometry, at 25 degrees C, I=0.1m. 2. Spectrophotometric studies imply that, at constant pH, the rate of bile pigment formation is first-order with respect to [H(2)O(2)] and also proportional to [deuteroferrihaem monomer]. The effect of pH on the apparent second-order rate constant suggests that acid-ionization of deuteroferrihaem monomer is important in the reaction mechanism. 3. The relative rates of formation of O(2) (from catalytic decomposition of H(2)O(2)) and CO (from oxidation of ferrihaem) have been measured by mass spectrometry. The results are in excellent agreement with those obtained by combining kinetic data for catalytic decomposition (Jones et al., 1973, preceding paper) with the spectrophotometric results for deuteroferrihaem oxidation.     

Oxidation of Good's buffers by hydrogen peroxide

Good's zwitterionic buffers are widely used in biological and biochemical research in which hydrogen peroxide is a solution component. This study was undertaken to determine whether Good's buffers exhibit reactivity toward H(2)O(2). It is found that H(2)O(2) oxidizes both morpholine ring-containing buffers (e.g., Mops, Mes) and piperazine ring-containing zwitterionic buffers (e.g., Pipes, Hepes, and Epps) to produce their corresponding N-oxide forms. The percentage of oxidized buffer increases as the concentration of H(2)O(2) increases. However, the rate of oxidation is relatively slow. For example, no oxidized Mops was detected 2h after adding 0.1M H(2)O(2) to 0.1M Mops (pH 7.0), and only 5.7% was oxidized after 24h exposure to H(2)O(2). Thus, although all of these buffers can be oxidized by H(2)O(2), their slow reaction does not significantly perturb levels of H(2)O(2) in the time frame and at the concentrations of most biochemical studies. Therefore, the previously reported rapid loss of H(2)O(2) produced from the ferroxidase reaction of ferritin is unlikely due to reaction of H(2)O(2) with buffer, a conclusion supported by the fact that H(2)O(2) is also lost rapidly when the solution pH of the ferroxidase reaction is controlled by a pH stat apparatus in the absence of buffer.     

Oxidation of 3-hydroxykynurenine catalyzed by methemoglobin with hydrogen peroxide.

Methemoglobin (metHb) with H2O2 catalyzed the oxidation of 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HKY) in the reaction mixture of metHb, 3-HKY, and H2O2. The spectrophotometric experiments suggest the following mechanism for the 3-HKY oxidation by metHb with H2O2. MetHb first reacts with H2O2 to form the ferryl complex of Hb. This species then oxidizes 3-HKY, while it returns to metHb. 3-HKY was more reactive with the ferryl complex than glutathione but less reactive than ascorbic acid. Scavengers of the hydroxyl radical, dimethyl sulfoxide and ethanol, scarcely inhibited the 3-HKY oxidation by metHb with H2O2. Desferrioxamine, a metal chelator, hardly suppressed the 3-HKY oxidation. These results indicate that the hydroxyl radical is not involved in the 3-HKY oxidation by metHb with H2O2.     

Oxidation of 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-methyl-d-glucose with alkaline hydrogen peroxide

Treatment of 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-methyl-d-glucose with 10 molar equivalents ofn 30% aqueous hydrogen peroxide and 2 molar equivalents of potassium hydroxide afforded, after chromatographic separation, 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-methyl-d-gluconolactone. 1-O-formyl-2,3,5-tri-O-methyl-d-arabinose methyl hemiacetal (7), 2,3,5-tri-O-methyl-d-arabinonolactone, methyl 2,3,5-tri-O-methyl-d-arabinoside, O-(2,4-di-O-methyl-d-erythrose)-(1'→3)-2,4-di-O-methyl-d-erythronic acid, and O-(2,4-di-O-methyl-d-erythrose)-(1′→2)-3-O-methyl-d-glyceraldehyde. The proportions of the products depended on the reaction conditions, especially the time, temperature, and the presence or absence of magnesium hydroxide. Formation of the products is explained by a series of reactions beginning with the addition of hydrogen peroxide to the carbonyl form of the methylated sugar. The adduct, with the help of superoxide radical and a molecule of hydrogen peroxide, breaks up in two ways, giving 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-methyl-d-gluconic acid and 7. The formic ester, on hydrolysis, gives 2,3,5-tri-O-methyl-d-arabinose, which undergoes a similar series of reactions, affording 2,3,5-tri-O-methyl-d-arabinonic acid, and presumably, 1-O-formyl-2,4-di-O-methyl-d-erythrose methyl hemiacetal. Apparently, the latter compound, on hydrolysis, forms a dimer, which, with alkaline hydrogen peroxide, undergoes a similar series of reactions, ultimately affording O-(2,4-di-O-methyl-d-erythrose)-(1→3)-2,4-di-O-methyl-d-erythronic acid and O-(2,4-di-O-methyl-d-erythrose)-(1→2)-3-o-methyl-d-glyceraldehyde. With a larger amount of alkali, under more-severe conditions, oxidation of 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-methyl-d-glucose proceeds further, with production of up to 3 moles of formic acid per mole of methylated sugar.     

Oxidation of nitroxide radicals by the reaction of hemoglobin with hydrogen peroxide

The ESR signal of 4-hydroxy-1-oxyl-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine in hemoglobin solution decreased drastically by the addition of hydrogen peroxide. The results of ion-exchange chromatography and sodium tetraphenylborate on the reaction solution showed an oxidation of the nitroxide radical to cation form. On the basis of the comparison of thin layer-chromatogram with the reaction products of the nitroxide radicals with HCl or Br2, the formation of 4-hydroxy-1-oxo-2,2,6,6- tetramethylpiperidinium cation was demonstrated. This result was supported by the 13C NMR measurement.     

Oxidation of certain cyclic carbonyl compounds with alkaline hydrogen peroxide

The following cyclic compounds were oxidized at 4° by means of aqueous sodium peroxide in large excess: 2,3,4,6/5-pentahydroxycyclohexanone (1); xylo-pentahydroxy-2-cyclohexen-l-one (2); xylo-trihydroxycyclohexane-1,2,3-trione (3); reductic acid (4); and ninhydrin (5). On oxidation, 1, 2, and 3 gave carbon dioxide, formic acid, and oxalic acid; in addition, 1 yielded DL-glucaric acid, and 2 and 3 afforded xylaric acid. Compound 4 gave almost equimolecular quantities of carbon dioxide and succinic acid. In addition to a small amount of formic acid, compound 5 gave carbon dioxide and phthalic acid in yields of 92 and 95%, respectively. Reaction mechanisms are proposed.     

Oxidation of methionine residues in the prion protein by hydrogen peroxide

Reaction of H(2)O(2) with the recombinant SHa(29-231) prion protein resulted in rapid oxidation of multiple methionine residues. Susceptibility to oxidation of individual residues, assessed by mass spectrometry after digestion with CNBr and lysC, was in general a function of solvent exposure. Met 109 and Met 112, situated in the highly flexible amino terminus, and key residues of the toxic peptide PrP (106-126), showed the greatest susceptibility. Met 129, a residue located in a polymorphic position in human PrP and modulating risk of prion disease, was also easily oxidized, as was Met 134. The structural effect of H(2)O(2)-induced methionine oxidation on PrP was studied by CD spectroscopy. As opposed to copper catalyzed oxidation, which results in extensive aggregation of PrP, this reaction led only to a modest increase in beta-sheet structure. The high number of solvent exposed methionine residues in PrP suggests their possible role as protective endogenous antioxidants.     

Oxidation of arachidonic acid in micelles by superoxide and hydrogen peroxide

Arachidonic acid was co-oxidized by xanthine oxidase. Both superoxide radical and hydrogen peroxide were required for oxidation, as shown by essentially complete inhibition caused by superoxide dismutase or by catalase. Pure arachidonate, free of lipid hydroperoxides, was susceptible to this co-oxidation, and the presence of lipid hydroperoxides did not accelerate the process. The role of trace metals was indicated by the stimulatory effect of EDTA-Fe and by the inhibitory effect of diethylenetriamine pentaacetate. Initiation of arachidonate co-oxidation was due to a potent oxidant generated by the interaction of H2O2 and O2- in the presence of Fe, rather than to either O2- or H2O2 per se. Hence, mannitol, a scavenger of OH ., but not of O2- or H2O2, also inhibited oxidation. Arachidonic acid autoxidation, a much slower process than xanthine oxidase co-oxidation, was barely detectable on the time scale of these observations. Unlike the co-oxidation, autoxidation was autocatalytic and therefore accelerated by hydroperoxide products. Marked quantitative differences in the distribution of isomeric hydroperoxide products of enzymic co-oxidation, as compared to the autoxidation, were noted and their significance was discussed.     

Oxidation of cell wall polysaccharides by hydrogen peroxide: a potential mechanism for cell wall breakdown in plants

Incubation of cellulose, sodium carboxylcellulose, pectin, polygalacturonic acid, xylan and arabinogalactan with hydrogen peroxide (0.1-10 mM) resulted in rapid breakdown of the polysaccharides when measured by a reduction of solution viscosity or an increase in reducing groups. When the reaction mixtures were precipitated with ethanol or fractionated on G-25-300 Sephadex, low molecular weight reducing groups increased with incubation time indicating that polymer cleavage was occurring and not simply polymer modification. Oxidation was most rapid at pH 6.5 or 7.5, although secondary optima between pH 3.5 and 5.5 were also observed, depending on the polysaccharide. Purified cell walls isolated from various organs of tomato, cucumber and soybean were similarly degraded and the ethanol-soluble reaction products were partially characterized. The data support the hypothesis that hydrogen peroxide generated by peroxidase from NADH may play a role during cell wall breakdown in plants.     

Oxidation of chlorophenols catalyzed by Coprinus cinereus peroxidase with in situ production of hydrogen peroxide

Degradation of 2,6-dichlorophenol (2,6-DCP) was accomplished by oxidation catalyzed by Coprinus cinereus peroxidase. Immobilization of the enzyme in a polyacrylamide matrix enhanced DCP oxidation. Hydrogen peroxide, peroxidase's natural substrate, was produced enzymatically in situ to avoid peroxidase inactivation by its too high concentration. In the case of larger scale utilization, the method would also avoid direct handling of this hazardous reagent.     

Oxidation of acetylacetone catalyzed by horseradish peroxidase in the absence of hydrogen peroxide

Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) is a plant enzyme widely used in biotechnology, including antibody-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (ADEPT). Here, we showed that HRP is able to catalyze the autoxidation of acetylacetone in the absence of hydrogen peroxide. This autoxidation led to generation of methylglyoxal and reactive oxygen species. The production of superoxide anion was evidenced by the effect of superoxide dismutase and by the generation of oxyperoxidase during the enzyme turnover. The HRP has a high specificity for acetylacetone, since the similar beta-dicarbonyls dimedon and acetoacetate were not oxidized. As this enzyme prodrug combination was highly cytotoxic for neutrophils and only requires the presence of a non-human peroxidase and acetylacetone, it might immediately be applied to research on the ADEPT techniques. The acetylacetone could be a starting point for the design of new drugs applied in HRP-related ADEPT techniques.     

Oxidation of 4-tert-butylcatechol and dopamine by hydrogen peroxide catalysed by horseradish peroxidase.

The catalytic cycle of horseradish peroxidase (HRP; donor:hydrogen peroxide oxidoreductase; EC 1.11.1.7) is initiated by a rapid oxidation of it by hydrogen peroxide to give an enzyme intermediate, compound I, which reverts to the resting state via two successive single electron transfer reactions from reducing substrate molecules, the first yielding a second enzyme intermediate, compound II. To investigate the mechanism of action of horseradish peroxidase on catechol substrates we have studied the oxidation of both 4-tert-butylcatechol and dopamine catalysed by this enzyme. The different polarity of the side chains of both o-diphenol substrates could help in the understanding of the nature of the rate-limiting step in the oxidation of these substrates by the enzyme. The procedure used is based on the experimental data to the corresponding steady-state equations and permitted evaluation of the more significant individual rate constants involved in the corresponding reaction mechanism. The values obtained for the rate constants for each of the two substrates allow us to conclude that the reaction of horseradish peroxidase compound II with o-diphenols can be visualised as a two-step mechanism in which the first step corresponds to the formation of an enzyme-substrate complex, and the second to the electron transfer from the substrate to the iron atom. The size and hydrophobicity of the substrates control their access to the hydrophobic binding site of horseradish peroxidase, but electron density in the hydroxyl group of C-4 is the most important feature for the electron transfer step.     

Oxidation of reduced cytochrome c by hydrogen peroxide. Implications for superoxide assays

Hydrogen peroxide, formed directly or as a product of superoxide dismutation, can oxidize ferrocytochrome c at rates comparable to those at which ferricytochrome c is reduced by superoxide. This reoxidation can significantly affect estimates of rates and amounts of superoxide production using absorbance changes for cytochrome c at 550 nm as the assay. The oxidation can be inhibited by catalase.     

Oxidation of oxymyoglobin to metmyoglobin with hydrogen peroxide: involvement of ferryl intermediate

Hydrogen peroxide, one of the potent oxidants in muscle tissues, can induce very rapid oxidation of oxymyoglobin (MbO2) to metmyoglobin (metMb) with an apparent rate constant of 7.5 X 10(4) h-1 M-1 (i.e., 20.8 s-1 M-1) over the wide pH range of 5.5-10.2 in 0.1 M buffer at 25 degrees C. Its molecular mechanism, however, is quite different from that of the autoxidation of MbO2 to metMb. Kinetic analysis has revealed that the hydrogen peroxide oxidation proceeds through the formation of ferryl-Mb(IV) from deoxy-Mb(II), which is in equilibrium with MbO2, by a two-equivalent oxidation with H2O2. Once the ferryl species is formed, it reacts rapidly with another deoxy-Mb(II) in a bimolecular fashion so as to yield 2 mol of metMb(III). Under physiological conditions, the rate-determining step was the oxidation of the deoxy species by H2O2, its rate constant being estimated to be on the order of 3.6 X 10(3) s-1 M-1 at 25 degrees C. These findings leads us to the view that a good supply of dioxygen provides rather an important defense against the oxidation of myoglobin with hydrogen peroxide in cardiac and skeletal muscle tissues.     

Oxidation of anthracycline anticancer agents by the peroxidase mimic microperoxidase 11 and hydrogen peroxide

The interaction of two clinically important anticancer agents doxorubicin (DXR) and daunorubicin (DNR) and the DNR analog 5-iminodaunorubicin (5IDNR) with the model mammalian peroxidase microperoxidase 11 (MP11) and H(2)O(2) has been investigated using spectrophotometric and EPR techniques. We demonstrate that DNR, DXR, and 5IDNR undergo irreversible oxidation by MP11/H(2)O(2), forming colorless products in both phosphate buffer pH 7.0 and in phosphate buffer pH 7.0/MeOH mixture (1:1 vol/vol), suggesting an extensive modification of the compounds' chromophores. The initial rate of the anthracyclines' oxidation is independent of anthracycline concentrations, but is linearly dependent on [H(2)O(2)](i) at constant [MP11](i) (and vice versa), indicating that the reaction is zero order in [anthracycline], first order with respect to [H(2)O(2)] and [MP11], and second order overall. Based on data obtained using DNR, DXR, 5IDNR, and p-hydroquinone k(2app), the apparent second order rate constant for the formation of a reactive intermediate from MP11 and H(2)O(2) (an analog of peroxidase compound I) has been determined to be in the range of (2.51-5.11) x 10(3) M(-1) s(-1) in both solvent systems. EPR studies show that oxidation of DNR, DXR, or 5IDNR with MP11/H(2)O(2) generates free radicals, suggesting that the reaction may be a one-electron process. This study also shows that 5IDNR, but not DNR or DXR, efficiently protects MP11 heme against degradation by H(2)O(2). Our overall conclusion is that MP11 is an effective catalyst of oxidation of anthracyclines by H(2)O(2). Given that, at sites of inflammation or cancer, the anthracyclines can colocalize with peroxidases, protein degradation products, and with H(2)O(2), peroxidation could be one possible fate of these anticancer agents in vivo.     

Formation of hydrogen peroxide by lens proteins: protein-derived hydrogen peroxide as a potential mechanism of oxidative insult to the lens.

The exposure of dialyzed preparations of lens crystallins to copper (II) ions causes a decrease in protein surface thiol and the production of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). H2O2 production by gamma and beta crystallin subfractions (which contain the greatest level of thiol) is the predominant source of this H2O2. Protein surface thiols are probable sources of H2O2 formation since N-ethyl maleimide treatment of lens proteins and zinc ions inhibit H2O2 production. These data are consistent with a hypothesis that transition metal-catalyzed oxidation of protein contributes to cataractogenic lens protein oxidations.     

Protection of GroEL by its methionine residues against oxidation by hydrogen peroxide

GroEL undergoes an important functional and structural transition when oxidized with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) concentrations between 15 and 20mM. When GroEL was incubated for 3h with 15 mM H2O2, it retained its quaternary structure, chaperone and ATPase activities. Under these conditions, GroEL's cysteine and tyrosine residues remained intact. However, all the methionine residues of the molecular chaperone were oxidized to the corresponding methionine-sulfoxides under these conditions. The oxidation of the methionine residues was verified by the inability of cyanogen bromide to cleave at the carboxyl side of the modified methionine residues. The role for the proportionately large number (23) of methionine residues in GroEL has not been identified. Methionine residues have been reported to have an antioxidant activity in proteins against a variety of oxidants produced in biological systems including H2O2. The carboxyl-terminal domain of GroEL is rich in methionine residues and we hypothesized that these residues are involved in the protection of GroEL's functional structure by scavenging H2O2. When GroEL was further incubated for the same time, but with increasing concentrations of H2O2 (>15 mM), the oxidation of GroEL's cysteine residues and a significant decrease of the tyrosine fluorescence due to the formation of dityrosines were observed. Also, at these higher concentrations of H2O2, the inability of GroEL to hydrolyze ATP and to assist the refolding of urea-unfolded rhodanese was observed.