NCAM-derived peptides function as agonists for the fibroblast growth factor receptor

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) directly interacts with the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR). Both fibronectin type III (FN3) modules of NCAM are involved in this interaction. One of the NCAM–FGFR contact sites has been localized recently to the upper N-terminal part of the second NCAM FN3 module encompassing the F and G β-strands and the interconnecting loop region. Here, we investigated whether any of the six putative strand-loop-strand regions in the first NCAM FN3 module are involved in FGFR interactions. Peptide sequences encompassing these regions, termed encamins, were synthesized and tested for their ability to bind and activate FGFR. Encamins localized to the N-terminal part of the first FN3 module did not interact with FGFR, whereas encamins localized to the C-terminal part, termed EncaminA, C and E, bound to and activated FGFR. The encamins induced FGFR-dependent neurite outgrowth, and EncaminC and E promoted neuronal survival and enhanced pre-synaptic function. In conclusion, the interaction between NCAM and FGFR probably involves multiple contact sites at an interface formed by the two NCAM FN3 modules and FGFR, and encamins could constitute important pharmacological tools for the study of specific functional aspects of NCAM, including neuroprotection and modulation of plasticity.     

An NCAM-derived FGF-receptor agonist, the FGL-peptide, induces neurite outgrowth and neuronal survival in primary rat neurons

The Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule (NCAM) plays a crucial role in development of the central nervous system regulating cell migration, differentiation and synaptogenesis. NCAM mediates cell-cell adhesion through homophilic NCAM binding, subsequently resulting in activation of the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR). NCAM-mediated adhesion leads to activation of various intracellular signal transduction pathways, including the Ras-mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathways. A synthetic peptide derived from the second fibronectin type III module of NCAM, the FGL peptide, binds to and induces phosphorylation of FGFR without prior homophilic NCAM binding. We here present evidence that this peptide is able to mimic NCAM heterophilic binding to the FGFR by inducing neuronal differentiation as reflected by neurite outgrowth through a direct interaction with FGFR in primary cultures of three different neuronal cell types all expressing FGFR subtype 1: dopaminergic, hippocampal and cerebellar granule neurons. Moreover, we show that the FGL peptide promotes neuronal survival upon induction of cell death in the same three cell types. The effects of the FGL peptide are shown to depend on activation of FGFR and the MAPK and PI3K intracellular signalling pathways, all three kinases being necessary for the effects of FGL on neurite outgrowth and neuronal survival.     

Structural basis for the activation of FGFR by NCAM

The fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) can be activated through direct interaction with the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM). The extracellular part of the FGFR consists of three immunoglobulin-like (Ig) modules, and that of the NCAM consists of five Ig and two fibronectin type III (F3) modules. NCAM-FGFR interactions are mediated by the third FGFR Ig module and the second NCAM F3 module. Using surface plasmon resonance and nuclear magnetic resonance analyses, the present study demonstrates that the second Ig module of FGFR also is involved in binding to the NCAM. The second Ig module residues involved in binding were identified and shown to be localized on the "opposite sides" of the module, indicating that when NCAMs are clustered (e.g., due to homophilic binding), high-affinity FGFR binding sites may be formed by the neighboring NCAMs.     

Structure of the tandem fibronectin type 3 domains of neural cell adhesion molecule

Activation of the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) by neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) is essential for NCAM-mediated neurite outgrowth. Previous peptide studies have identified two regions in the fibronectin type 3 (FN3)-like domains of NCAM as being important for these activities. Here we report the crystal structure of the NCAM FN3 domain tandem, which reveals an acutely bent domain arrangement. Mutation of a non-conserved surface residue (M610R) led to a second crystal form showing a substantially different conformation. Thus, the FN3 domain linker is highly flexible, suggesting that it corresponds to the hinge seen in electron micrographs of NCAM. The two putative FGFR1-binding segments, one in each NCAM FN3 domain, are situated close to the domain interface. They form a contiguous patch in the more severely bent conformation but become separated upon straightening of the FN3 tandem, suggesting that conformational changes within NCAM may modulate FGFR1 activation. Surface plasmon resonance experiments demonstrated only a very weak interaction between the NCAM FN3 tandem and soluble FGFR1 proteins expressed in mammalian cells (dissociation constant > 100 μM). Thus, the NCAM-FGFR1 interaction at the cell surface is likely to depend upon avidity effects due to receptor clustering.     

1H and 15N resonance assignment of the second fibronectin type III module of the neural cell adhesion molecule

We report here the NMR assignment of the second fibronectin type III module of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM). This module has previously been shown to interact with the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR), and the FGFR-binding site was mapped by NMR to the FG-loop region of the module. The FG-loop region also contains a putative nucleotide-binding motif, which was shown by NMR to interact with ATP. Furthermore, ATP was demonstrated to inhibit binding of the second F3 module of NCAM to FGFR.     

Structural basis for a direct interaction between FGFR1 and NCAM and evidence for a regulatory role of ATP

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) promotes axonal outgrowth, presumably through an interaction with the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR). NCAM also has a little-understood ATPase activity. We here demonstrate for the first time a direct interaction between NCAM (fibronectin type III [F3] modules 1 and 2) and FGFR1 (Ig modules 2 and 3) by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analysis. The structure of the NCAM F3 module 2 was determined by NMR and the module was shown by NMR to interact with the FGFR1 Ig module 3 and ATP. The NCAM sites binding to FGFR and ATP were found to overlap and ATP was shown by SPR to inhibit the NCAM-FGFR binding, indicating that ATP probably regulates the NCAM-FGFR interaction. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the NCAM module was able to induce activation (phosphorylation) of FGFR and to stimulate neurite outgrowth. In contrast, ATP inhibited neurite outgrowth induced by the module.     

An NCAM Mimetic, FGL, Alters Hippocampal Cellular Morphometry in Young Adult (4 Month-Old) Rats

The neural cell adhesion molecule, NCAM, is ubiquitously expressed within the CNS and has roles in development, cognition, neural plasticity and regulation of the immune system. NCAM is thus potentially an important pharmacological target for treatment of brain diseases. A cell adhesion mimetic FGL, a 15 amino-acid peptide derived from the second fibronectin type-III module of NCAM, has been shown to act as a neuroprotective agent in experimental disease and ageing models, restoring hippocampal/cognitive function and markedly alleviating deleterious changes in the CNS. However, the effects of FGL on the hippocampus of young healthy rats are unknown. The present study has examined the cellular neurobiological consequences of subcutaneous injections of FGL, on hippocampal cell morphometry in young (4 month-old) rats. We determined the effects of FGL on hippocampal volume, pyramidal neuron number/density (using unbiased quantitative stereology), and examined aspects of neurogenesis (using 2D morphometric analyses). FGL treatment reduced total volume of the dorsal hippocampus (associated with a decrease in total pyramidal neuron numbers in CA1 and CA3), and elevated the number of doublecortin immunolabeled neurons in the dentate gyrus, indicating a likely influence on neurogenesis in young healthy rats. These data indicate that FGL has a specific age dependent effect on the hippocampus, differing according to the development and maturity of the CNS.     

A peptide from the first fibronectin domain of NCAM acts as an inverse agonist and stimulates FGF receptor activation, neurite outgrowth and survival

Neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) contributes to axon growth and guidance during development and learning and memory in adulthood. Although the Ig domains mediate homophilic binding, outgrowth activity localizes to two membrane proximal fibronectin-like domains. The first of these contains a site identified as a potential FGF receptor (FGFR) activation motif (FRM) important for NCAM stimulation of neurite outgrowth, but its activity has hitherto remained hypothetical. Here, we have tested the effects of a domain-specific antibody and peptides corresponding to the FRM in cellular assays in vitro. The first fibronectin domain antibody inhibited NCAM-stimulated outgrowth, indicating the importance of the domain for NCAM function. Monomeric FRM peptide behaved as an inverse agonist; low concentrations specifically inhibited neurite outgrowth stimulated by NCAM and cellular responses to FGF2, while saturating concentrations stimulated FGFR-dependent neurite outgrowth equivalent to NCAM itself. Dendrimeric FRM peptide was 125-fold more active and stimulated FGFR activation, FGFR-dependent and FGF-mimetic neurite outgrowth and cell survival (but not proliferation). We conclude that the FRM peptide contains NCAM-mimetic bioactivity accounted for by stimulation of FGF signalling pathways at the level of or upstream from FGF receptors, and discuss the possibility that FRM comprises part of an FGFR activation site on NCAM.     

The fibroblast growth factor receptor acid box is essential for interactions with N-cadherin and all of the major isoforms of neural cell adhesion molecule

Interactions between the neural cell adhesion molecules NCAM and N-cadherin with the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) are important for a number of developmental events and have also been implicated in tumor progression. The factors regulating these interactions are not known. We have used co-immunoprecipitation and co-clustering paradigms to show that both adhesion molecules can interact with the 3Ig IIIC isoform of the FGFR1 in a number of cell types. Interestingly, whereas the interaction can be seen over most of the cell surface, it is not seen at points of cell-cell contact where the adhesion molecules accumulate at stable junctions. We also demonstrate for the first time that all of the major isoforms of NCAM can interact with the FGFR. Using deletion mutagenesis we have found that the adhesion molecule/FGFR interaction can withstand the removal of most of any one of the FGFR immunoglobulin-like domains (D1-D3). In contrast, the FGFR interaction with N-cadherin and NCAM (but not FGF) is absolutely dependant on the presence of the acid box motif that can be found in the linker region between D1 and D2. As this motif can be spliced out of all four FGFRs, it suggests that this is one mechanism that can regulate the interaction of the receptor with different ligand classes.     

Neural cell adhesion molecule induces intracellular signaling via multiple mechanisms of Ca2+ homeostasis

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) plays a pivotal role in the development of the nervous system, promoting neuronal differentiation via homophilic (NCAM-NCAM) as well as heterophilic (NCAM-fibroblast growth factor receptor [FGFR]) interactions. NCAM-induced intracellular signaling has been shown to affect and be dependent on the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i). However, the molecular basis of this remains unclear. In this study, we determined [Ca2+]i regulating mechanisms involved in intracellular signaling induced by NCAM. To mimic the effect of homophilic NCAM interaction on [Ca2+]i in vitro, we used a peptide derived from a homophilic binding site of NCAM, termed P2, which triggers signaling cascades similar to those activated by NCAM-NCAM interaction. We found that P2 increased [Ca2+]i in primary hippocampal neurons. This effect depended on two signaling pathways. The first pathway was associated with activation of FGFR, phospholipase Cgamma, and production of diacylglycerol, and the second pathway involved Src-family kinases. Moreover, NCAM-mediated Ca2+ entry required activation of nonselective cation and T-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. These channels, together with the Src-family kinases, were also involved in neuritogenesis induced by physiological, homophilic NCAM interactions. Thus, unanticipated mechanisms of Ca2+ homeostasis are shown to be activated by NCAM and to contribute to neuronal differentiation.     

Neurite outgrowth induced by a synthetic peptide ligand of neural cell adhesion molecule requires fibroblast growth factor receptor activation

The neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM is involved in axonal outgrowth and target recognition in the developing nervous system. In vitro, NCAM-NCAM binding has been shown to induce neurite outgrowth, presumably through an activation of fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs). We have recently identified a neuritogenic ligand, termed the C3 peptide, of the first immunoglobulin (lg) module of NCAM using a combinatorial library of synthetic peptides. Here we investigate whether stimulation of neurite outgrowth by this synthetic ligand of NCAM involves FGFRs. In primary cultures of cerebellar neurons from wild-type mice, the C3 peptide stimulated neurite outgrowth. This response was virtually absent in cultures of cerebellar neurons from transgenic mice expressing a dominant-negative form of the FGFR1. Likewise, in PC12E2 cells transiently expressing a dominant-negative form of the mouse FGFR1, induction of neurites by the C3 peptide was abrogated. These findings suggest that the neuritogenic effect of the C3 peptide requires the presence of functional FGFRs and support the hypothesis that FGFRs are essential in cell adhesion molecule-stimulated neurite outgrowth. The C3 peptide appears to stimulate neurite outgrowth by specifically activating an NCAM-FGFR-dependent signaling cascade and may therefore be of considerable interest as a tool for the determination of NCAM-dependent neurite outgrowth as well as a potential drug capable of promoting outgrowth and regeneration of NCAM-responsive axons.     

Modulation of the homophilic interaction between the first and second Ig modules of neural cell adhesion molecule by heparin

The second Ig module (IgII) of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) is known to bind to the first Ig module (IgI) of NCAM (so-called homophilic binding) and to interact with heparan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate glycoconjugates. We here show by NMR that the heparin and chondroitin sulfate-binding sites (HBS and CBS, respectively) in IgII coincide, and that this site overlaps with the homophilic binding site. Using NMR and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analyses we demonstrate that interaction between IgII and heparin indeed interferes with the homophilic interaction between IgI and IgII. Accordingly, we show that treatment of cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) with heparin inhibits NCAM-mediated outgrowth. In contrast, treatment with heparinase III or chondroitinase ABC abrogates NCAM-mediated neurite outgrowth in CGNs emphasizing the importance of the presence of heparan/chondroitin sulfates for proper NCAM function. Finally, a peptide encompassing HBS in IgII, termed the heparin-binding peptide (HBP), is shown to promote neurite outgrowth in CGNs. These observations indicate that neuronal differentiation induced by homophilic NCAM interaction is modulated by interactions with heparan/chondroitin sulfates.     

Structure and interactions of NCAM modules 1 and 2, basic elements in neural cell adhesion.

The structure in solution of the second Ig-module fragment of residues 117-208 of NCAM has been determined. Like the first Ig-module of residues 20-116, it belongs to the I set of the immunogloblin superfamily. Module 1 and module 2 interact weakly, and the binding sites of this interaction have been identified. The two-module fragment NCAM(20-208) is a stable dimer. Removal of the charged residues in these sites in NCAM(20-208) abolishes the dimerization. Modeling the dimer of NCAM(20-208) to fit the interactions of these charges produces one coherent binding site for the formation of two antiparallel strands of the first two NCAM modules. This mode of binding could be a major element in trans-cellular interactions in neural cell adhesion.     

NCAM Mimetic Peptides: Potential Therapeutic Target for Neurological Disorders

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) plays a pivotal role in the development and maintenance of the nervous system via homophilic (NCAM–NCAM) and heterophilic (NCAM-other molecules) interactions. Many synthetic peptides have been engineered to mimic these interactions and induce NCAM-downstream signaling pathways. Such NCAM mimetics have displayed neuritogenic and neuroprotective properties, as well as synaptic modulation in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, they have been used successfully in preclinical studies to treat neurological disorders including stroke, traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer’s disease. This review focuses on recent progress in the development of NCAM mimetic peptides, in particular, on establishing C3, plannexin, and FGL as therapeutic candidates for neurological disorders.     

Identification of a neuritogenic ligand of the neural cell adhesion molecule using a combinatorial library of synthetic peptides.

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) plays a key role in neural development, regeneration, and learning. In this study, we identified a synthetic peptide-ligand of the NCAM Ig1 module by combinatorial chemistry and showed it could modulate NCAM-mediated cell adhesion and signal transduction with high potency. In cultures of dissociated neurons, this peptide, termed C3, stimulated neurite outgrowth by activating a signaling pathway identical to that activated by homophilic NCAM binding. A similar effect was shown for the NCAM Ig2 module, the endogenous ligand of NCAM Ig1. By nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, the C3 binding site in the NCAM Ig1 module was mapped and shown to be different from the binding site of the NCAM Ig2 module. The C3 peptide may prove useful as a lead in development of therapies for neurodegenerative disorders, and the C3 binding site of NCAM Ig1 may represent a target for discovery of nonpeptide drugs.     

Structural biology of NCAM homophilic binding and activation of FGFR

In this review, we analyse the structural basis of the homophilic interactions of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) and the NCAM-mediated activation of the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR). Recent structural evidence suggests that NCAM molecules form cis-dimers in the cell membrane through a high affinity interaction. These cis-dimers, in turn, mediate low affinity trans-interactions between cells via formation of either one- or two-dimensional 'zippers'. We provide evidence that FGFR is probably activated by NCAM very differently from the way by which it is activated by FGFs, reflecting the different conditions for NCAM-FGFR and FGF-FGFR interactions. The affinity of FGF for FGFR is approximately 10(6) times higher than that of NCAM for FGFR. Moreover, in the brain NCAM is constantly present on the cell surface in a concentration of about 50 microm, whereas FGFs only appear transiently in the extracellular environment and in concentrations in the nanomolar range. We discuss the structural basis for the regulation of NCAM-FGFR interactions by two molecular 'switches', polysialic acid (PSA) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which determine whether NCAM acts as a signalling or an adhesion molecule.     

Agonists of fibroblast growth factor receptor induce neurite outgrowth and survival of cerebellar granule neurons

Fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) signaling is pivotal in the regulation of neurogenesis, neuronal differentiation and survival, and synaptic plasticity both during development and in adulthood. In order to develop low molecular weight agonists of FGFR, seven peptides, termed hexafins, corresponding to the β6‐β7 loop region of the FGF 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, and 17, were synthesized. This region shares a homologous amino acid sequence with the FG‐loop region of the second fibronectin Type III module of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) that binds to the FGFR. Hexafins were shown by surface plasmon resonance to bind to FGFR1‐IIIc‐Ig2‐3 and FGFR2‐IIIb‐Ig2‐3. The heparin analog sucrose octasulfate inhibited hexafin binding to FGFR1‐IIIc‐Ig2‐3 indicating overlapping binding sites. Hexafin‐binding to FGFR1‐IIIc resulted in receptor phosphorylation, but inhibited FGF1‐induced FGFR1 phosphorylation, indicating that hexafins act as partial agonists. Hexafin2, 3, 8, 10, and 17 (but not 1 or 9) induced neurite outgrowth from cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs), an effect that was abolished by two inhibitors of FGFR, SU5402 and inositol hexaphosphate (IP6) and a diacylglycerol lipase inhibitor, RHC‐80267. The neuritogenic effects of selected hexafins could also be inhibited by FGF1 which by itself did not induce neurite outgrowth. Moreover, hexafin1, 3, 9, 10, and 17 (but not 2 or 8) promoted survival of CGNs induced to undergo apoptosis. Thus, selected hexafins induced neuronal differentiation and survival, making them promising pharmacological tools for the study of functional FGFR regulation in development of the nervous system. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 2009     

A synthetic NCAM-derived mimetic peptide, FGL, exerts anti-inflammatory properties via IGF-1 and interferon-γ modulation

Microglial cell activity increases in the rat hippocampus during normal brain aging. The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM)-derived mimetic peptide, FG loop (FGL), acts as an anti-inflammatory agent in the hippocampus of the aged rat, promoting CD200 ligand expression while attenuating glial cell activation and subsequent pro-inflammatory cytokine production. The aim of the current study was to determine if FGL corrects the age-related imbalance in hippocampal levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and pro-inflammatory interferon-γ (IFNγ), and subsequently attenuates the glial reactivity associated with aging. Administration of FGL reversed the age-related decline in IGF-1 in hippocampus, while abrogating the age-related increase in IFNγ. FGL robustly promotes IGF-1 release from primary neurons and IGF-1 is pivotal in FGL induction of neuronal Akt phosphorylation and subsequent CD200 ligand expression in vitro . In addition, FGL abrogates both age- and IFNγ-induced increases in markers of glial cell activation, including major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) and CD40. Finally, the proclivity of FGL to attenuate IFNγ-induced glial cell activation in vitro is IGF-1-dependent. Overall, these findings suggest that FGL, by correcting the age-related imbalance in hippocampal levels of IGF-1 and IFNγ, attenuates glial cell activation associated with aging. These findings also highlight a novel mechanism by which FGL can impact on neuronal CD200 ligand expression and subsequently on glial cell activation status.     

Amyloid-Beta Induced CA1 Pyramidal Cell Loss in Young Adult Rats Is Alleviated by Systemic Treatment with FGL,a Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule-Derived Mimetic Peptide

Increased levels of neurotoxic amyloid-beta in the brain are a prominent feature of Alzheimer’s disease. FG-Loop (FGL), a neural cell adhesion molecule-derived peptide that corresponds to its second fibronectin type III module, has been shown to provide neuroprotection against a range of cellular insults. In the present study impairments in social recognition memory were seen 24 days after a 5 mg/15 µl amyloid-beta(_25–35) injection into the right lateral ventricle of the young adult rat brain. This impairment was prevented if the animal was given a systemic treatment of FGL. Unbiased stereology was used to investigate the ability of FGL to alleviate the deleterious effects on CA1 pyramidal cells of the amyloid-beta(_25–35) injection. NeuN, a neuronal marker (for nuclear staining) was used to identify pyramidal cells, and immunocytochemistry was also used to identify inactive glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK3β) and to determine the effects of amyloid-beta(_25–35) and FGL on the activation state of GSK3β, since active GSK3β has been shown to cause a range of AD pathologies. The cognitive deficits were not due to hippocampal atrophy as volume estimations of the entire hippocampus and its regions showed no significant loss, but amyloid-beta caused a 40% loss of pyramidal cells in the dorsal CA1 which was alleviated partially by FGL. However, FGL treatment without amyloid-beta was also found to cause a 40% decrease in CA1 pyramidal cells. The action of FGL may be due to inactivation of GSK3β, as an increased proportion of CA1 pyramidal neurons contained inactive GSK3β after FGL treatment. These data suggest that FGL, although potentially disruptive in non-pathological conditions, can be neuroprotective in disease-like conditions.     

The neural cell adhesion molecule binds to fibroblast growth factor receptor 2

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) can bind to and activate fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1). However, there are four major FGFR isoforms (FGFR1-FGFR4), and it is not known whether NCAM also interacts directly with the other three FGFR isoforms. In this study, we show by surface plasmon resonance analysis that NCAM can bind to FGFR2 with an affinity similar to that for the NCAM-FGFR1 interaction. However, the kinetic parameters for the NCAM-FGFR2 binding are different from those of the NCAM-FGFR1 binding. Both receptors were shown to cycle relatively fast between the NCAM bound and unbound states, although FGFR2 cycling was clearly faster (13 times) than the FGFR1 cycling. Moreover, ATP was more effective in inhibiting the binding of NCAM to FGFR1 than to FGFR2, indicating that the binding sites in NCAM for the two receptors are similar, but not identical.